Jesus Christ (continued) – Jidlaph

Page 122 of 259

Jesus Christ (continued)

(a) General principles. — The ruling spirit is the desire of each member to help all and each according to the measure of his ability. Titles which involve the assumption of personal authority are to be avoided (). Honour and infiuence are to be proportionate to service (, ). It is to be a contrast to the natural society in two respects — that no one seeks his own but only the general good, and that there are no distinctions of rank and power resting upon accident, intrigue, or violence. In the light of these maxims the promise to Peter must be interpreted (). It certainly meant that Peter was the chief instrument by which in the primitive period the Church was to be built up, but the promise was to Peter as confessing Christ, and by implication to all who make themselves his successors by sharing his faith. ‘

(6) The work of the Christian society. — There can be no doubt that this is formulated by Jn. in accordance with the mind of Jesus in the words — ‘As thou didst send me into the world, even so sent I them into the world’ (; cf . ff.). ). His instructions to the Twelve, and to the Seventy, in which He appoints and equips them for a ministry like His own, show that He conceived of the society as an instrument whiich should carry on His works of preaching and healing. The risen Lord lays on the conscience the duty of making disciples of all nations (). The work of the Church which is spoken of in most detail is discipline, the aim of which is declared to be the improvement of the erring brother, while the stages of the procedure are laid down(Mt IS""-). Importance is also attached to the function of binding and loosing (vM), which is regarded as the prerogative of the Christian society as a whole, not of a particular class. The reference is to forbidding and permitting — i.e. framing maxims and rules of life which should be recognized as operative wltliin the society.

(c) The rdigious rites. — There is every reason to believe that Jesus instituted two simple rites to be observed in the society. That baptism was appointed by Him has been denied, on the ground that it is vouched for only in the narrative of the post-resurrection life, and that it embodies a Trinitarian formula (). It is, however, antecedently probable, from the connexion of Jesus with the Baptist, that He took over the rite of baptism, while its use from the beginning of the Christian Church as the sacrament of initiation presupposes its appointment or sanction by Jesus. The institution of the Lord’s Supper as a standing ordinance has already been referred to.

(7) The future and the inheritance. — The teaching of Jesus about the future, so far as it deals with the Return, has already been touched on, and it is sufficient now to note — (1) references to the growth of the Christian society on earth; (2) the glimpses of the final inheritance.

(a) The development of the society. — There are a number of passages, especially in the parables, which imply a history of the Church marked by three features — a gradual growth to a world-leavening and worldovershadowing influence, debasement through a large admixture of evil elements, and experiences of trial and persecution ().

(6) The final portion. — It is in vain that we look in the teaching of Jesus for instruction upon many eschatologipal questions which have exercised the minds of theologians. His message may be summed up in the two articles, that there is a fearful punishment reserved for those who come to the Judgment in unbelief and impenitence, and that for those who are His there remains a great and an enduring inheritance. As to the conditions and the content of the blessedness of those who ‘enter into life’ there is a large measure of reserve. He has no doctrine of the intermediate state. He fixes our gaze on the final state in which there is no longer any human impediment to prevent the bestowal of all that is in the heart of the Father to give — peace, blessedness, glory, with opportunity of service. As to the ultimate fate of the wicked, we can only say that it is a problem for the solution of which the letter of certain sayings makes in one direction (). while His proclamation of the Father’s unlimited and untiring love makes in the other.

18. The credibility of the teaching.— The teaching of Jesus contains two salient features (apart from the Christology), which are of such fundamental importance in a view of life that they may be briefly touched on from an apologetic point of view. The questions are — Is the Fatherhood of God, as Jesus proclaimed it, a fact? Is the Christian ethic, as expounded in the Sermon on the Mount, practicable?

(1) The doctrine of the Divine Fatherhood, on which virtually everything turns, is inexpressibly beautiful and consoling; but there is evidence that Jesus Himself was conscious of difficulties. Otherwise He would not have spoken of faith as maldng a demand on the will. His insistence on the need of importunity in prayer shows that He felt that events do not always, and at the first glance, fit into a scheme of things in which the hand of the Heavenly Father is manifest. In Gethsemane and on the cross, if words mean anything. He felt to the full the trial of faith. When we question human experience, there are numberless persons who say that they have been unable to trace the tender individualizing discipline of a Heavenly Father which Jesus assumed, and that things rather seem to have been governed, except in as far as they have themselves compelled results, by a blind and deaf fate. Modern views of the reign of law increase the difficulty. If the Universe is a vast mechanism, grinding on in accordance with inviolable laws to predetermined issues, where is the possibility of the intervention of a Father’s hand to control the individual lot, and to mete out such blessings as we need or pray for? These are real difficulties which burden many a sincere mind and trouble many a sensitive heart. But it is to be considered that, apart from the authority which may be claimed for a revelation, there is good ground for believing in the title of man to interpret God, as Jesus did, in the light of the idea of Fatherhood. God is revealed in His works; among these works the greatest thing that has come into view on earth is the self-sacrificing love and the disinterested service which are associated with the sanctities of family life; and we may well be sceptical that God is less in goodness than a human parent, or His purpose with mankind less generous than that of an earthly father with his family. Theistic philosophy construes God in thel light of man’s rational and moral nature; Christ’s method was similar, except that He took as His clue the moral nature as it is revealed at its best, namely, in the life of the home. Nor are the objections of the strength which is often supposed. The Universe is no doubt machine-like, but it does not therefore f oUow that it puts it out of the power of God to deal paternally and discriminatingly with His children. In the first place, God’s greatest gifts consist of things with which the mechanism of nature has absolutely nothing to do — such as communion with God, forgiveness of sins, peace, joy, spiritual power. And as regards the outward circumstances of our lot, with which it has to do, it is quite possible to hold, as many profound thinkers have held, that God works in and through general laws, and yet is able by their instrumentality to accomplish particular providences and to vouchsafe answers to prayer. Nor does it seem that any bitter human experience can be such as to justify disbelief in the Divine Fatherhood, because the witnesses to the truth include those who have tasted the extremity of human sorrow. The paradox of it is that the belief in the Fatherhood of God comes to us attested by many who were beyond others sons and daughters of affliction; and owes its place in the world’s heart above all to Him who, dying in unspeakable agony, said, ‘Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit.’

(2) The Christian e«hic.— The modern criticisms of the morality of the Sermon on the Mount are two — that it is imperfect, and that it is Impracticable. The first objection has already been touched on In part, and we need refer now only to the line of criticism which finds fault with its exaltation of the passive virtues as a mark of weakness. What lends some colour to this is that, as a matter of fact, many weak characters naturally behave in a way that bears some resemblance to the precepts of the Sermon on the Mount. They endure wrongs meekly, do not strike back, and are incapable of sustaining a feud. But it may still be, and actually is, a great thing for a strong man to do from principle what a weakling does from indolence or cowardice. The objection that the Christian ethic is impracticable Is more frequently heard, at least in Great Britain. Even the Church finds it impracticable to act on our Lord’s principle of secrecy in the matter of giving, while It would seem that the individual who carried out His precepts in business would be ruined, and that the nation which followed His programme of non-resistance would perish. The weight of the objection is so far reduced by the observation that our Lord’s precepts are designed to be followed, not in the letter, but in the spirit — so that, e.g., the really important thing is, not to give to a thief who may have stolen a coat a doak in addition, but to cherish kindly feelings for him, and to act In his best interests, which may mean putting him in gaol. Similarly, our duty to the poor is to give wise expression to our love of them, which may very properly take account of the experience that indiscriminate charity increases the distress which it professes to relieve. The really essential thing is that brotherly love should prevail, that that which is to a large extent a fact In the sphere of the family should become truly operative in the class, the community, the nation, and among the peoples of the earth. It is to be remembered, too, that every ideal which has become practicable was once deemed impracticable — there have been states of society in which it seemed impossible to be honest, or temperate, or chaste; and though the Christian ideal towers high above the general practice of our generation, it may be that that ‘practice vrill one day be looked back on as belonging to the half-savage practice of the world’s youth. And in the present it has often been made sublimely practicable for those whom the Holy Spirit touched, and whose hearts were set aflame with a Christ-like love of man. W. P. Paterson.

Jether

1. Father-tn-law of Moses (RVm of E), prob. a mistake for Jethro. 2. Eldest son of Gideon (). 3. An IshmaeUte, father of Amasa (. . See Ithra). i. 5. Two men of Judah ( ). 6. A man of Asher () called in v. Ithran, the name of an Edomlte clan ().

Jetheth

An Edomlte clan ( = ).

JETHRO {once. Jether).— An Arab sheik and priest of the Sinaitlc Peninsula, the father-in-law of Moses; referred to by this name in and , ff. (E), as Reuel in the present text of (J), and as Hobab in (also J). He welcomed Moses and received him Into his family (), and many years later visited him at Sinai ( ff.), heard with wonder and delight of the doings of Jahweh on behalf of Israel (), and gave advice about administration () Later still he probably acted as guide to the Israelites ( ff.; cf. the AV of and ). As to the two or three names, it may be noted that Arabic inscriptions (Mineean) repeatedly give a priest two names. The name Jethro (Heb. Yithrd) may mean ‘pre-eminence.’ See art. Hobab. W. Taylob Smith.

Jetur

See Itur^a.

Jeuel

1. A Judahite (). 2. A Levitical family name (). 3. A contemporary of Ezra (). In 2 and 3 QerS has Jeiel.

Jeush

1. A son of Esau by Ohollbamah; also the eponym of a Horlte clan ( = ). 2. A Benjamite chief (). 3. A descendant of Saul (). 4. The name of a Levitical family (1 Ch f.). 5. A son of Rehoboam ().

Jeuz

The eponym of a Benjamite family ().

Jew

The name by which the descendants of Israel have been known for many centuries. It is corrupted from Judah. After the division of the kingdom in b.c. 937, the southern portion was called by the name of the powerful tribe of Judah, which composed most of its inhabitants. It was in this kingdom that the Deuteronomic reform occurred, which was the first step in the creation of an organized religion sharply differentiated from the other religions of the world. This religion, developed during the Exile, bore the name of the kingdom of Judah. All Israelites who maintained their Identity were its adherents, hence the name ‘Jew’ has absorbed the name ‘Israel.’ For their history, see Israel (I. 21-30) and Dispersion. For their religion, see Israel (II. 5. 6).

On the special meaning of ‘the Jews’ in Jn. see p. 481’‘f. George A. Barton.

Jewel

‘the servant brought forth jewels of silver, and jewels of gold.’ They were not jewels set in silver and in gold. Ornaments made of gold or silver were in older English called jewels. Now the word is confined to precious stones.

Jewels and Precious Stones

The greater number of the precious stones in the Bible occur in three lists which it will be instructive to tabulate at the outset. These are: (A) the stones in the high priest’s breastplate ( ) (B) those in the ‘covering’ of the king of Tyre () (C) those in the foundation of the New Jerusalem (, ). The three lists are to some extent mutually connected. A contains 12 stones. B in Heb. has 9, all taken from A, with traces of A’s order in their arrangement. In LXX the two lists are identical, and possibly the Heb. of B is corrupt. C also has 12 stones, and is evidently partly dependent on the LXX of A and B.

It seems likely that in List A as well as in List B the LXX iaspis corresponds to the Heb. yashepheh, and that the sixth and twelfth names In the Heb. of A have been interchanged.

Reference to these tables will simplify the use of the following notes, which include other precious stones of A.— The High Priest’s Breastplate. Exodus Hebrew LXX

RV 28 39 < 1. ‘Odem .... Sardion

Sardius (mg. Ruby)

Sardius (mg. Ruby) 2. Pitdah .... Topazion

Topaz

Topaz 3. Bareqeth Smaragdos

Carbuncle Carbuncle (mg. Emerald) Emerald (mg. Carbuncle) 28 39 < 4. Nophek. Anthrax

Emerald 5. Sappir .... 6. Yahalom (Yashepheh?) . Sappheiros

Sapphire

Sapphire laapis

Diamond

Diamond (mg. Sardonyx) 28 39 7. Leahem .... Ligurion Achates

Ligure

Jacinth (mg. Amber) 8. Shebo ....

Agate

Agate 9. ‘Achlamah Amethyatos Chryaolithos

Amethyst

Amethyst 28 39 5 10. Tarshish

Beryl

Beryl (mg. Chalcedony) Al. Shoham Beryllion

Onyx

Onyx (mg. Beryl) 12. Yashepheh (Yahalom?) . Onyohion

Jaaper

Jasper

2 G the Bible besides those mentioned above. In endeavouring to identify the stones in List A, three things have to be liept in view. From the dimensions of the breastplate— a span (8 or 9 inches) each way () — the 12 stones which composed it must, even after allowing space for their settings, have been of considerable size, and therefore of only moderate rarity. Further, as they were engraved with the names of the tribes, they can have been of only moderate hardness. Lastly, preference should be given to the stones which archeeology shows to have been actually used for ornamental work in early Biblical times. In regard to this point, the article by Professor Flinders Petrie (Hastings’ DB iv. 619-21) is of special value.

B. — The ‘Covering’ or the Kino of Tyre ().

Hebrew

LXX

1. ‘Odem .

1. Sardion .

Sardius(mg.

Sardius (mg.

Ruby)

2. Pitdah .

2. Topazion .

Topaz

9. Bareqeth-

3. Smaragdos

Carbuncle C a r b un c le (mg.Emerald)

8. Nophek .

4. Anthrax .

E m e r a l d

Emerald (mg.

(mg. Chrysoprase) Sapphire

Carbuncle) 7. Sappir 6. Yashepheb

5. Sappheiros

Sapphire

6. laspis . .

Jasper

7. Ligurion .

8. Achates .

9. Amethystos 10. Cbrysolithos

4. Tarshish .

Beryl (mg.

Beiyl

Chrysolite)

5. Shoham .

11. Beryllion .

Onyx

3. Yahalom .

12. Onychion .

Diamond

Adamant (. Zee ). — See Diamond below.

Agate (List A 8 [Heb. shebd\). The Gr. equivalent achates (whence ‘agate’) was the name of a river in Sicily. The modern agate is a form of silica, occurring in nodules which when out across show concentric bands of varying transparency and colour. The ancient achates (Pliny, HN xxxvii. 54) probably included the opaque coloured varieties of silica now distinguished as jasper (see Jasper below). Flinders Petrie suggests that shebo may be the carnelian — also a form of sihca (see Sardius below). ‘Agates’ (RVm ‘rubies ‘) stands for Heb. kadkod in (LXX iaspis), . Red jasper is perhaps to be understood.

C. — The Foundations

OF THE New Jerusalem.

Rev.

Grefek

1. lospia .

Jasper

2. Sappheiros .

Sapphire

S a p p h i re (mg.

Lapia-lazuli) Chalcedony

3. Chalkedon .

Chalcedony

4. Smaragdoa .

Emerald

5. Sardonyx

Sardonyx

6. Sardion

Sardius

7. Chrysolithos .

Chrysolyte

Chryaolite

8. Beryllos . .

Beryl

) J

9. Topazion

Topaz

10. Chrysoprasoa Chrysopraatia Jacintn

Chrysoprase

11. Hyakinthos .

Jacinth (mg. Sap-

phire)

12. Amethystos .

Amethyst

Amber. — Doubtful tr. in Ezk !’■ " of chashmal (AVm ‘electrum,’ Amer. RV ‘glowing metal’); of. also Ligure below.

Amethyst (List A 9 [Heb. ‘achlamah, LXX amethystos], C 12 [amethystos]). It is agreed that the common amethyst, properly called amethystine quartz, is meant. This is rock-crystal (transparent silica) coloured purple by manganese and iron. The Oriental amethyst is a much rarer gem, composed of violet corundum (oxide of aluminium), — in short, a purple sapphire. The name of the amethyst is derived from its supposed property, no doubt associated with its wine-like colour, of acting as a preventive of intoxication.

Beryl (List A 10, B 4; also , , [Heb. tarshish]). What the ‘tarshish stone’ was is difficult to say. LXX renders it variously, but never by beryllion or beryllos. Topaz (RVm in ). yellow rock-crystal (false topaz), yellow serpentine, jacinth, and yellow jasper (Flinders Petrie) have been suggested as possible identifications. It is generally agreed that beryl is more likely to correspond to shoham (List A 11, B 5; . SS’- " , , ). which LXX renders beryllion in A, EV always ‘onyx,’ but RVm generally ‘beryl.’ Beryl is a silicate of aluminium and beryllium, with a wide range of tints from yellow, through green, to blue, according to the proportion of the colouring matter (oxide of chromium). The commonest form of the crystal is a six-sided prism. Now each of the two shoham stones in , was engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel. A hexagonal prism such as beryl would best lend itself to this purpose. In NT beryllos occurs in List C 8.

Carbuncle (List A 3, B 9 [Heb. bareqeth or -ath, L.XX smaragdos]) . Bareqeth is simply a, ‘hghtning’ or ‘flashing’ stone.’ But ‘carbuncle’ (from carlmnculus, a small glowing coal) denotes a red or fiery stone, and cannot correspond to the smaragdos, which was green (PUny, HN xxxvii. 16). It is rather the equivalent of Gr. anthrax (Heb. nophek. List A 4, B 8). PUny names 12 varieties of smaragdos, the most important of which is doubtless our emerald. This stone should probably be substituted for ‘carbuncle’ in A and B; so RVm (see Emerald below). Flinders Petrie, however, thinks that the smaragdos was greenish rock-crystal (silica). ‘Carbuncle’ occurs more appropriately in for Heb. ‘abhnS’egdach (‘stones of burning,’ RVm ‘rubies’). Any red stone like the garnet may be meant.

Chalcedony (List C 3). The modern stone of this name is semi-opaque or milky silica, but the ancient one was probably the green dioptase (silicate of copper). This at least seems to have been the kind of smaragdos that was found in the copper mines of Chalcedon (PUny, HN xxxvii. 18). There was some contusion, however, between the ‘stone of Chalcedon’ and the carchedonia (stone of Carthage), which was red (PUny, ib. xxxvii. 25, 30). Carchedon occurs as a various reading for chalcedon in Eev .

Chrysolite (RV; AV ‘chrysolyte’; List C 7). In modern mineralogy this is the peridote (see Topaz below). The ancient gem was some other golden-coloured stone. Yellow quartz, yellow corundum, jacinth, or some variety of beryl may possibly be understood.

Chrysoprase (RV; AV ‘chrysoprasus,’ List C 10). The prasius of PUny (HN xxxvii. 34) was a leek-green chalcedony (from Gr. prason, a leek), of which there was a golden-tinted variety. The latter may be the NT chrysoprase. Possibly, however, both chrysoprase and chrysolite in List C refer to yellowish shades of beryl. The modern chrysoprase is a slightly translucent silica, coloured a beautiful apple-green by oxide of nickel.

Coral (, ) is the calcareous ‘skeleton’ secreted by some of the compound actinozoa. Red coral (.corallium rubrum) is common in the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. In the living state the branching calcareous framework is covered by the ‘coenosarc’ or common tissue of the organism, from which the individual polyps protrude. In the coral of commerce the living tissue has of course disappeared, and only the soUd ‘skeleton’ remains. ‘Coral’ is also a possible rendering of peninim (so RVm in the passages under Ruby below).

Crystal,— In , AV thus renders Heb. zekukith, but RV understands ‘glass.’ In the next verse, however, RV has ‘crystal’ for Heb. gabish, instead of AV ‘pearls.’ In ‘crystal’ stands for Heb. qerach (RVm ‘ice’). In NT krystaUos appears in . In all these cases except the first the reference is probably to rock-crystal (colourless transparent quartz).

Diamond (List A 6, B 3). The Heb. yahalom probably stood in the twelfth place in List A, where LXX has onychion. Hence in this list RVm has ‘sardonyx’ for ‘diamond.’ The latter is in any case an impossible rendering. The diamond was unknown in ancient times. It would have been too hard to engrave, and a diamond large enough to have borne the name of a tribe and to have filled a space in the high priest’s breastplate would have been of incredible value. The yahalom was most likely the onyx, a banded form of silica (see Onyx below). ‘Diamond’ also occurs In as the material of an engraving tool. The Heb. is Shamir, wMch is rendered ‘adamant’ in two other passages where it is found (. Zee ). The reference is probably to corundum or emery (aluminium oxide), a very hard mineral.

Emerald (List A 4, B 8; also [Heb. nophek, LXX anthrax, RVm ‘carbuncle’]). Some red fiery stone is plainly intended, the red garnet being the most likely. ‘Emerald’ is more probably the equivalent of Heb. baregeth in List A 3, B 9 (see Carbuncle above). The common emerald is identical in composition with the beryl, but dififers from it in hardness and in its bright green colour. The Oriental emerald (green corundum) is very rare. In NT ‘emerald’ stands for smaragdos; in List C 4, and in , where the rainbow is compared to it. The latter passage is among Fhnders Petrie’s grounds for supposing that smaragdos is rock-crystal, which produces by its refraction all the prismatic colours.

Jacinth (Gr. hyakinOios, List C 11). In the breastplates of the visionary horsemen are compared to jacinth (RV ‘hyacinth’). There is no doubt that hyakinthos denoted the modem sapphire (blue corundum) . So RVm in List C. The modern jacinth is a silicate of zircon. RV reads ‘jacinth’ for Heb. leshem in List A 7 (AV ‘ligure’).

Jasper (List A 12, B 6). The Heb. is yashepheh, and in B this corresponds to the LXX iaspis. Probably yashepheh should stand sixth in A also, in which case iaspis would again be the LXX equivalent. In NT iaspis occurs in List C 1, and also in . In the ‘jasper stone’ is luminous and clear as crystal. The iaspis of Pliny was primarily a green stone (.HN xxxvii. 37), but he enumerates many other varieties. It was also often transparent, and we must apparently take it to mean the green and other shades of chalcedony or semi-transparent silica. In modern terminology jasper denotes rather the completely opaque forms of the same substance, which may be of various colours — black, brown, red, green, or yellow.

Ligure (List A 7). The Heb. leshem is rendered by LXX ligurion, an obscure word which is possibly the same as lyngkurion, the latter being a yellow stone which was supposed to be the congealed urine of the lynx (PUny, HN xxxvii. 13). Some identify the lyngkurion with the modem jacinth or yellow jargoon (silicate of zircon). So RV. Others take the KffMrion to be amber, which the Greeks obtained from Liguria (so RVm). Flinders Petrie identifies it with the yellow agate.

Onyx (List A 11. B 5; also . SS"- "‘, . ). The Heb. shoham is rendered variously in LXX, but in List A by beryllion, and it is probable that shoham is the beryl; so generally RVm (see Beryl above). Flinders Petrie suggests that green felspar may be intended. It would seem more correct to make’ onjrx ‘the twelfth stone in List A, where LXX has onychion. If, as is probable, the Heb. yahalom (A 6) and yashepheh (A 12) should change places, onychion would thus stand for the former, which RVm renders ‘sardonyx.’ We should then substitute ‘onyx’ or ‘sardonyx’ for ‘diamond’ in List B 3 also. The onyx was a banded semi-transparent silica similar to the modern agate, the name being suggested by the contrast between the white and flesh-coloured zones of the finger-nail. In the special variety called the Roman onyx — the modern nicolo (oniculus) — the layers are opaque, and alternately whitish-blue and black.

Ruby (always in pi. ‘rubies’ [Heb. peninim or peniyyim]. , [in all which passages RVm has ‘red coral’ or ‘pearls ‘], [RVm’ corals ‘; in this last passage the context shows that some red stone is meant]). The true or Oriental ruby is red corundmu (aluminium oxide), a very precious stone. The spinel ruby is an aluminate of magnesium. Both would be included along with red garnets under the general name’ carbuncle.’

Sapphire (List A 6, B 7, also , , , . , , [Heb. sappir, LXX sappheiros]). Sappheiros occurs in NT in List C 2. PUny (HN xxxvii. 32) describes this stone as of an azure colour, opaque, refulgent, with spots of gold. This cannot apply to the transparent modern sapphire, which was the ancient hyakinthos (see Jacinth above). It exactly fits the lapis lazuli (mainly a silicate of calcium, aluminium, and sodium), which is of a bright blue colour and is often speckled with yellow iron pyrites (sulphide of iron) . In powdered form it is known as ‘ultramarine .’

Sardius (List A 1, B 1 [Heb. ‘odem, LXX sardion]). In NT sardion occurs in list C 6, and also in (AV’ sardine stone,’ RV ‘sardius’). The root meaning of ‘odem is’ red,’ and sardion, though popularly derived from Sardis (Pliny, HiV xxxvii. 31), is rather the Persian sered (‘yellowish red’). AVm and RVm have ‘ruby’ in Lists A and B, but it is most likely that the ‘sardius’ is carnelian (semi-transparent silica, coloured red by oxide of iron). Fhnders Petrie suggests red jasper, which is much the same in composition, but opaque.

Sardonyx (List C 5; also RVm for ‘diamond’ in list A 6). A variety of onyx or banded silica in which red layers of sardius were present. The typical sardonyx was that in which the bands were alternately black, white, and red, tor PUny (HN xxxvii. 75) describes how the genuine stone was imitated by cementing layers of these colours together.

Topaz (List A 2, B 2; [Heb. pitdah, LXX topazion]). ropastom stands also in List C 9. The stone so named by the Greeks was not the modern topaz (silicate of aluminium in which some of the oxygen is replaced by fluorine), but the peridote (yellowish-green silicate of magnesium). Flinders Petrie thinks that the name may have been given still earlier to green serpentine, which was actually used in Egaptian work, and is a hydrated form of the same substance as peridote. The Oriental topaz is yellow corundum, and the so-called ‘false topaz’ is yellow quartz. RVm has ‘topaz’ for ‘beryl’ (i.e. the ‘tarshish stone’) in .

If the stones above mentioned be classified according to their composition, it will appear that, in spite of the bewildering variety of names, the principal groups are comparatively few.

The largest number of stones come under silica, the crystalUzed form of which is distinguished as quartz. When colourless or nearly so, quartz is called ‘rock-crystal.’ Yellow quartz is the false topaz, violet or amethystine quartz the common amethyst. The amorphous semi-opaque varieties of silica are grouped under the modern term ‘chalcedony.’ This may be red (sardius, carnelian), leek-green (prasius, ancient jasper), or banded (onyx, sardonyx, modern agate). Opaque silica gives the modem jasper (ancient agate), which may be coloured red, green, yellow, etc.

A second group is formed by the silicates (silica in combination with metallic oxides). Thus we have modem jacinth (silicate of zircon), peridote or ancient topaz(silicate of magnesium) , dioptase or ancient chalcedony(silicate of copper), modern topaz (mainly silicate of aluminium), felspar (silicate of aluminium with sodium, potassium or calcium), beryl and common emerald (silicate of aluminium and beryllium), lapis lazuli or ancient sapphire (silicate of aluminium, calcium and sodium), garnet (sihcate of aluminium and calcium, or a similar combination).

A third group consists of aluminium oxide (alumina), and includes the opaque corundum, of which emery is an impure form, and the transparent modern sapphire (blue). Oriental ruby (red). Oriental topaz (yellow), Oriental amethyst (violet), and Oriental emerald (green).

Lastly, we have an cUuminate (alumina in combination with a metallic oxide) in the spinel ruby (aluminate of magnesium).

Alabaster in the modem sense is gypsum or sulphate of lime. The ancient or Oriental alabaster, however, was a form of carbonate of lime, and was largely used for vases, which were thought to be specially adapted for preserving unguents (Phny, HiVxiii.3). The term ‘alabaster’ seems to have been applied in a general sense to vases even when not made of this material. There are two well-known instances in NT in which an alabaster ‘box’ (AV) or ‘cruse’ (RV) of ointment was used (. , ).

James Patrick.

Jewry

This old form occurs frequently in the older versions, but rarely in AV. In it stands for Judah; in , and occasionally in the Apocr. for Judaea,

Jezaniah

A Judahite military officer who joined Gedaliah at Mizpah (). He is called in Jaazaniah, and is apparently to be identified also with Azariah of .

Jezebel

(meaning uncertain). Daughter of Ethbaal, king of Tyre and previously high priest of the Tyrian Baal; wife of Ahab, king of Israel, of the dynasty of Omri. Jezebel’s evil influence in the land of Israel, especially in combating the religion of Jahweh in the interests of Baal-worship, was exercised not only during the twenty-two years of Ahab’s reign, but also during the thirteen years of the rule of her two sons, Ahaziah and Joram; moreover, this influence extended, though in a less degree, to the Southern Kingdom of Judah, where Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel, seems to have followed in the footsteps of her mother (). In her strength of character, her lust for power, her unshrinking and resolute activity; her remorseless brushing aside of anything and everything that interfered with the carrying out of her designs, she was the veritable prototype of Catherine de Medicis.

In the OT the figure of Jezebel is presented in connexion with some dramatic episodes which are probably recorded as illustrations, rather than as exceptionally flagrant exampleP bf her normal mode of procedure. These are: the account of the trial of strength between the prophets of Baal and Elijah (), the narrative about Naboth and his vineyard (). and, as illustrating her obstinate, unbending character to the very end— note especially her words to Jehu in the story of her death ().

In the name of Jezebel occurs; she calls herself a prophetess, and tempts men to wickedness. It is questionable whether the mention of the name here has any reference at all to the queen Jezebel.

W. O. E. Obsterley.

Jezelus

1. 1 Esdras 8:32 = Jahaziel. 2. 1 Esdras 8:35 =Ezr 8» Jehiel.

Jezer

The head of the Jezerites (, ).

Jeziel

A Benjamite ().

Jezrahiah

The leader of the singers at the dedication of the walls of Jerus. (). In the same name is rendered Izrahiah.

Jezreel

The Hebrew name from which is derived the name of the Plain of Esdraelon (see Esdraelon). The plain is called ‘the Valley of Jezreel’ in . , .

1. Primarily, however, it denotes an important city overlooking the Plain on the south in the border of the tribe of Issachar. Here, by ‘the fountain of Jezreel’ — probably the powerful spring known as ‘Ain JalUd — the Israelites encamped against the Philistines before the battle of Gilboa (). It is named as an important town in the short-lived kingdom of Ishbosheth (). Under Solomon it was in the administrative district of Baana (). But the chief interest of the town’s history centres in the time of the reign of Ahab, who established here a royal residence, to which he retired when the three years’ drought came to an end ( ), and whence he saw and coveted the vineyard of Naboth (21). It is probable, however, that the ‘ivory palace’ of was not at Jezreel, but at the capital, Samaria. To Jezreel came Joram to recover from the wounds received in battle with the Syrians () and here, on the revolt of Jehu, were that king and his mother Jezebel slain (ch. 9), as well as all that remained of the house of Ahab (ch. 10). This is the last we hear of Jezreel, which thereafter seems to have sunk into insignificance. The place is represented both in situation and in name by the modern village of Zer’in, a poor and dirty hamlet. Except a few ruined tombs and fragments of sarcophagi, there are no remains of antiquity to be seen in the neighbourhood.

2. There was a second Jezreel, of which nothing is known save that it was in the territory of Judah (JoslS") and was the native place of one of David’s wives, Abinoam (). 3. A Judahite (). 4. The symbolical name of Hosea’s eldest son (). 6. Jezreel (‘whom God soweth’) is a title symbolically applied to Israel in f.: R. A. S. Macalisteb.

Jezrielus

Jezrielus (1 Esdras 9:27) = Jehiel.

Jidlaph

A son of Nahor ().

James Hastings (ed.), with John A. Selbie and John C. Lambert, Dictionary of the Bible (Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909). Public domain. Scan of Cornell University Library’s copy from the Internet Archive; text from its OCR, with the Bible references read again from the page images.

Jesus Christ (continued) – Jidlaph

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