Lebana – Levitical Cities

Lebana

Lebana (Nehemiah 7:48) or LEBANAH (Ezra 2:45). .—The head of a family of returning exiles; called in 1 Esdras 5 Labana.

LEBANON, now Jebel LebnS/n, is mentioned more than 60 times in the OT. The name, from the root labOn (‘white’), was probably given on account of the mountain’s covering of snow. The snow of Lebanon is mentioned in Jeremiah 18:14. Many passages refer to its beauty, particularly in relation to its cedars and other trees (see Psalms 72:16, Song of Songs 4:11. Hosea 14:5, 7). From Lebanon was obtained wood for building the first (2 Chronicles 2:8) and the second (Ezra 3:7) Temple. Lebanon was famous for its fruitfulness (Psalms 72:16) and its wine (Hosea 14:7).

The term ‘Lebanon’ may be considered in most places as referring to the whole mountain mass, more correctly distinguished as Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon (Libanus and Antilibanus of Judith 1:7). The two ranges traverse N. Syria, running roughly parallel, from S.W. to N.E., and are separated by a deep valley — the biq’ ah of Joshua 11:17 12:7 — known to-day as el-Buqa^ . The western range, Lebanon proper, is nearly 100 miles long, but the eastern, if Hermonis deducted as a separate entity, is only 65 miles long. The former range is divided from the mountains of Galilee by the deep chasm made by the Liidni river in its passage seawards. In the N. a somewhat similar gorge formed by the Nahr d-Keblr, the ancient Eleutherus, divides it from the Jebel Nusairiyeh. The summits of the range rise in height from south to north. In the S. a few points attain to almost 7000 feet; in the centre, E. of Beyrout, Jebel Kuneiseh is 6960 feet, and Jebel Sannln 8554 feet; further N., to the S.E. of Tripoli, is a great semicircular group of mountains, sometimes known as the ‘Cedar group,’ on account of the famous group of these trees in their midst, where the highest point, Jebel Mukhmal, reaches 10,207 feet, and several other points are almost as lofty. Geologically the Lebanon is built of three main groups of strata. Lowest comes a thick layer of hard limestone, named — after its most characteristic fossil (.Cidaris glandaria) — Glandaria hmestone; above this are strata of Nubian sandstone, yellow and red in colour, and in places 1500 feet thick, overlaid and interlaced with strata of limestone containing fossil echinoderms and ammonites; and thirdly, above this group, and forming the bulk of the highest peaks, is another layer, many thousand feet thick in places, of a limestone containing countless fossils known as hippurites, radiolites, and such like. The sandstone strata are most important, for where they come to the surface is the richest soil and the most plentiful water, and here fiourish most luxuriantly the pines which are such a characteristic feature of W. Lebanon scenery. A great contrast exists between the W. and E. slopes. The former are fertile and picturesque, while down their innumerable valleys course numberless mountain streams to feed the many rivers fiowing seawards. The E. slopes are comparatively barren, and, except at one point, near Zafileh, there is no stream of importance. Of the Lebanon rivers besides the Nahr LitB/ni (Leontes) and the Nahr el-KeWr (Eleutherus), the following may be enumerated from S. to N. as the more important: Nahr ez-Zaherani, Nahr el- Auwali (Bostrenus), Nahr Beirut (Magoras), Nahr el-Kdb (Lycus), Nahr Ibrahim (Adonis), and the Nahr Qadlsha or ‘holy river,’ near Tripoli.

The Lebanon is still fairly well wooded in a few places, though very scantily compared with ancient times, when Hiram, king of Tyre, supplied Solomon with ‘cedar trees, fir trees, and algum trees out of Lebanon’ (1 Kings 5:6. 2 Chronicles 2:8). In regard to cultivation there has been a very great improvement in recent years, and the terraced lower slopes of the mountain are now covered with mulberry, walnut, and olive trees as well as vines. Many of the views in the Lebanon are of most romantic beauty, and the climate of many parts is superb. Wild animals are certainly scarcer than in olden days. In the time of Tiglath-pileser i. the elephant was hunted here, but it has long been extinct. Jackals, gazelles, hysenas, wolves, bears, and panthers (in order of commonness) are found and, inland from Sidon, the coney (Hyrax) abounds.

Politically the Lebanon rejoices in a freer and better government than any other part of Syria, as, since the massacres of 1860, a Christian governor, appointed with the approval of the European Powers, rules on behalf of the Sultan. The district, except in the N., is now extensively supplied with excellent carriage roads, and the range is crossed by the French railway from Beyrout to Damascus, the highest point traversed being 4880 feet above sea-level.

Between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon is the great hollow known to the Greeks as Ccele-Syria, and to-day called Buqa’ el-‘Aziz. Considered geologically, this wide valley is a product of the same great’ fault’ as produced the deep Jordan valley. It is now a great, fertile, but little cultivated, plain, from 3 to 6 miles wide, and in its rise, not far from Baalbek, two famous rivers, the Lilani (Leontes), which flows S., and the Nahr el-‘Asi or Orontes, which flows N., and enters the sea near Antioch. This hollow plain, besides being crossed transversely by the Damascus railway and road, is traversed over more than half its length by the new line past Baalbek, Horns, and Hamath to Aleppo Some part of this plain,’ the valley of the Lebanon, would appear to have been conquered by the Israelites (Joshua 11:17).

The Anti-Lebanon is to-day known as Jebd esft- Sherki or ‘the east mountain,’ the equivalent of ‘Lebanon towards the sun-rising’ of Joshua 13:5. In Song of Songs 7:4 it is referred to as ‘the tower of Lebanon that looketh towards Damascus.’ In Deuteronomy 1:7 3:25 11:24. Joshua 1:4 9:1. the Heb. ‘Lebanon’ is in the LXX tr. ‘Anti-Lebanon.’ Anti-Lebanon is somewhat arbitrarily divided from Hermon, which is structurally its S. extremity, by a, pass (along which the French diligence road runs), and especially by the Wqdy Barada. In the N. it terminates in the plain around Horns. Its highest point is Tola’ at MUsa (8755 feet), but several other peaks are almost as lofty. A valley, like the Buqa’ in miniature, traverses the S. part of the range from N. to S., and in this rises the Nahr Yaf’Ufeh, which empties its waters down the Wady Yafufeh to join the LUani; and the Nahr Barada, which, after rising in a beautiful pool at the S.W. extremity of this plain, runs down the Wady Barada to Damascus. The N. part of this range is very bare and wild. E. W. G. Masterman.

Lebaoth

See Beth-biri.

Lebb

Lebb aiUS.— See Thadd^us.

Leb-kamai

In Jeremiah 51:1 is a phrase ‘in the midst of them which rise up against me’ (Heb. leb-qamai). This is generally recognized as being an example of the KabbaUstic rule of hermeneutics whereby a cipher word was obtained by taking the letters of the alphabet in the reverse order, the last for the first, the last but one for the second, and so on. By this process (known as Atbash), leb-qamai gives us Kasdim (the Chaldseans).

W. F. Cobb.

Lebonah

A place near Shiloh on the way to Shechem (Judges 21:19). It is prob. the ruin Khan d-Lubban, about 3 miles W.N.W. of SeUan (Shiloh).

Leo Ah

The ‘son’ of Er (1 Chronicles 4:21).

Leeks

The Heb. word chatSvr, which is elsewhere tr. ‘grass’ or ‘herb,’ is rendered ‘leeks’ in Numbers 11:5. and in this passage, owing to the association with onions and garlic, the tr. is probably correct, leeks being the herb par excellence. The leek {Allium porrum) is much grown in Palestine, where it is a general favourite.

E. W. G. Mabterman.

Lees

The sediment which settled at the bottom of the wine-jars, composed of morsels of husks, stalks, etc.; in OT only in figures. See Wine and Sthonq Drink, § 3.

LEG, — 1. kera’ ayim, a fern. dual, in which form alone it appears (Exodus 12:9 etc.). It denotes the legs from knee to ankle (Geseniua). 2. regd (1 Samuel 17:6). ht. ‘foot.’ 3. shoq, the leg, apparently including the thigh, for which it stands in Exodus 29:22, 27. Leviticus 7:32, 33, 3 S^"- 9:21 lO’"-, Numbers 6:20 18:18. 1 Samuel 9:24. in all of which AV tr. ‘shoulder,’ but RV, correctly, ‘thigh.’ In Psalms 147:10 shoqi ha-Uh may mean ‘toot-soldiers.’ The proverbial phrase ‘hip and thigh,’ is Hterally ‘leg upon thigh’ (Judges 15:8). descriptive of the confusion of severed limbs. 4. shBbel (Isaiah 47:2) means ‘train’ (RV, correctly, ‘strip off the train’). 5. skelos (John 19:31 ff.). To hasten the death of the crucified, it was customary to break their legs. W. Ewinq.

Legion

This term, which means literally ‘a gathering,’ looks back to the early days of the Roman citizen army. In the time of the Empire it indicated a force of about 6000 infantry, together with complements of other arms. The infantry proper were divided into ten cohorts (the word is tr. ‘band’ [wh. seel in Matthew 27:27. Mark 15:16. John 18:3, 12. Acts 10:1 21:31 27:1). each containing about 600 men, and each commanded on occasion by a military tribune. Of these tribunes there were six to a legion. A cohort was itself subdivided into ten centuries, each commanded by a centurion. It is not necessary to remember all these facts in studying the NT use of the word ‘legion’ (Matthew 26:53. Mark 5:9, 15. Luke 8:30). What chiefly impressed Semites was apparently the size of the legion, and ‘legion’ appears to have become a proverb among them for a large number of persons in orderly combination. A. Souteb.

Lehab

Lehab m, occurring only in Genesis 10:13 ( = 1 Chronicles 1:11). are descendants of Mizraim, the Egyptian eponym. The general opinion is that they are the same as the Lubim (wh. see), whether the word is an alternative traditional pronunciation of the name of this people, or whether, as is more probable, the form here given is due to textual corruption. The fact that Lubim or Libyans is a fairly common word, and that it is not found in the ethnological list of Genesis 10, where it would naturally appear in the place of Lehabim, adds something to the evidence of identity. Perhaps Ludim (wh. see) in the same verse is another variant. J. F. M’ Curdt.

LEHI Cjawborie’). — The scene of Samson’s well-known adventure with the jawbone of an ass (Judges 15:9, 14, 19). The site has been placed in Judah, between the Cliff of Etam and the country of the Philistines.

Lemuel

The name of a king, otherwise unknown, to whom Proverbs 31:1–9 is addressed by his mother. His identity has been much discussed; he has been identifled (by the Rabbinical commentators) with Solomon, (by Grotius) with Hezekiah. Cf. also Massa. It is possible that the name is a fanciful title to represent any virtuous king, invented for the purpose of conveying certain maxims. T. A. Moxon.

Lending

See Debt.

LENTILS C adashlm, Genesis 25:34. 2 Samuel 17:28 23:11, Ezekiel 4:9). These are without doubt the Arab, ‘adas — a kind of small reddish bean, the product of Ervum lens, a small leguminous plant 6 or 8 inches high, much cultivated in Palestine, and ripening in June or July. It is the bean from which the well-known revalenta, a food tor invalids, is made. In Palestine a kind of’ pottage’ known as mujedderah, universally popular, is made from it. It is of a reddish-brown colour, and is certainly the original ‘red pottage’ of Esau (Genesis 25:30). E. W. G. Masterman.

Leopard

(na??ier). Thisanimal (Fdispardus, Arab. nimr) is still found at times in the wilder parts of Palestine. Its beautiful spotted skin (Jeremiah 5:6) is from time to time brought into the towns for sale. Some dervishes clothe

Leprosy

Leprosy j themselves in a leopard’s skin. Its fierceness (Hosea 13:7) , its agility (Habakkuk 1:8), and untamableness (Isaiah 11:6) are all mentioned. The name Nimr is a favourite one with the Arabs, who admire these qualities. In the names ‘waters of Nimrlm’ (‘leopards,’ Isaiah 15:6. Jeremiah 48:34) and ‘Beth-nimraft’ (‘f. leopard,’ Numbers 32:3, 36) references to the leopard also occur; cf. the ‘mountains of nerrilTim’ (i.e. ‘the leopards,’ Song of Songs 4:8). The cheetah (Felix jubata) is found also in Galilee, and it too may have beenincluded under the Heb. word nSTner. E. W. G. Masterman.

Leprosy

This term, as used in Scripture, seems to include not only true leprosy (elephantiasis) — probably the disease of Job — but also such skin diseases as psoriasis, ring-worm, and mtiligo. For the priestly regulations as to the diagnosis of the disease and the treatment of lepers, see art. Clean and Unclean, § 5. The ‘leprosy’ in garments -(Lv 13"«) seems to be an effect of fungus or mildew, while that in houses (14*") is probably dry-rot.

Leshem

A form, occurring only in Joshua 19, of the name Laish (see Dan).

Lessait

A village where an encounter took place between the Jews and Nicanor (2 Maccabees 14:16). The site is unknown, and the text is uncertain.

Let

In Anglo-Saxon loetan meant ‘to permit’ and lettan, ‘to hinder.’ In course of time both words were spelled ‘let.’ Consequently In AV, besides its modern meaning of ‘permit,’ the vb. ‘let’ sometimes has the opposite meaning of ‘hinder.’ Thus 2 Thessalonians 2:7. ‘only he who now letteth will let, until he be taken out of the way.’ The other places are Exodus 5:4. Numbers 22:16, Isaiah 43:13. Wisdom 7:22. Romans 1:13.

Lethech, Lethek

See Weights AND Measubes.

Letter

See Writing.

Letushim

One of the Dedanite tribes in N. Arabia (Genesis 25:3). the others being Leummim and Asshurim (wh. see). In this verse LXX adds two other tribes; but in the parallel passage, 1 Chronicles 1:32. the sons of Dedan are omitted altogether both in MT and in most MSS of LXX. None of the three tribes has been identified.

J. F. M’Cdkdy.

Leummim

A tribe of the Dedanites (Genesis 25:3). cf. Lbtushim.

Levi

1. The third son of Jacob by Leah (Genesis 29:34 [J]). The genealogical story connects the name with the verb ISwah, ‘to be joined,’ and P (Numbers 18:2, 4) plays upon the same word, saying to Aaron: ‘Bring the tribe of Levi . . . that it may be joined (yillawU) unto thee.’ Many modern scholars hold to this improbable etymology of the name — improbable, among other reasons, because, unlike other tribal names, it is not nominal, but adjectival. It is said to signify ‘the one who attaches himself.’ Accordingly ‘the Levites are those who attached themselves to the Semites who migrated back from the Delta, therefore, Egyptians’ (Lagarde, Or. ii. 20, Milt. i. 54). Others say ‘those who were attached to the ark’ as priestly attendants. Still others make it a gentilic noun, and connect it with the South- Arabian torn’M, (f. toOT’af), ‘priest.’ Against this is the primitive use of ‘Levite’ as one of the tribe of Levi. The word is probably a gentilic from Leah (‘wild-cow’ ) as Wellh. (Proleg. 146) suggests, and as Stade (G VI 152) asserts. If this be correct, and it has the greater probability in its favour, it points to early totem worship.

In the Blessing of Jacob (Genesis 49:5–7) we have one of the most important passages bearing upon the early history of this tribe and that of Simeon : ‘Simeon and Levi are brethren; Weapons of violence are their swords. Cursed be their anger, for it was fierce; And their wrath, for it was cruel: I will divide them in Jacob, And scatter them in Israel.’ From this passage it is abundantly evident that Levi was, like all the other Israelitish tribes, a purely secular organization. Simeon and Levi are both set forth as bloodthirsty characters, and there is not the slightest hint of Levi being a priestly caste. The treacherous act referred to, which was so serious a violation of tribal morals that it cost them the sympathy of the other tribes, is probably recorded in Genesis 34 in two different versions, the oldest of which is J’s. The other now interwoven with it is probably P’s enlargement of the original. According to the story, Shechem, the son of Hamor, became enamoured of Dinah, the sister of Simeon and Levi, and seduced her. He made an honourable arrangement to marry the girl and to discharge whatever obligations her family might impose upon him. Simeon and Levi took advantage of the Shechemites’ disability and slew them. Like other stories, though related in personal form, it is tribal in intention. It portrays early relations between the Israelites and the original inhabitants. The love of the Shechemite for the daughter of Jacob points to some sort of an alliance in which the right of connuMum was acknowledged, and the act of Simeon and Levi was, therefore, a barbarous repudiation of the rights of their native allies. From Judges 9 it is clear that the sons of Hamor re-possessed themselves of the city, the other tribes having withheld their assistance, probably more from fear of Canaanite revenge than from any overwhelming moral detestation of the act. The result was fatal for the future of the tribes, at first more particularly for Levi, but later also for Simeon. So complete were the disastrous consequences to Levi at this time that the tribal independence was lost, and the members became absorbed by the other tribes, especially by Judah. There is no mention of Levi and Simeon in Judges 5.

Some early connexion with Moses may have aided them in finding recognition about the sanctuaries in the early days. Then the altar did not call for a consecrated servitor; but, as we see in the case of Micah, who had a private sanctuary in Ephraim, there existed apparently a preference for a Levite (Judges 17). It is not absolutely clear from the reference here that ‘Levite’ is equal to ‘priest,’ as is commonly held. This would imply that by this time all Levites were priests. ‘Filling up of the hand’ (translated ‘consecrated’ in vv. 5, 12) may refer to a ceremony of induction into the priestly office, the principal act of which was the solemn placing of the god (or other religious symbol) in the hands of the future officiant at the shrine. It is the phrase used by the Assyrian kings when they speak of the gods bestowing upon them the kingship. It is the phrase which became the terminus technicus for consecration to the priesthood, and there is no reason for giving a different meaning to it here. In Jg 3-16 there is no mention of a priest. For the altar-service alone priests were not necessary, as we see in the case of Gideon and Manoah. The fact that the word ‘levite’ became synonymous with ‘priest’ indicates that the priesthood drew heavily from the tribe. It is not the only time that worldly misfortune has contributed to religion. See also Priests and Levites, Tribes of Israel.

2. See Matthew. 3. 4. Two ancestors of Jesus (Lk 3:24, 29). James A. Craig.

Leviathan

In four of the five passages where this word appears, the LXX have dragon, and their belief that a creature of serpentine form was meant is confirmed by the derivation of Heb. lavah, which signifies ‘to twist or wind.’ The leviathan of Job 41:1–34 is the crocodile, with added traits drawn from the ancient Creation myths. On the assumption that Psalms 74:12–17 refers to the Exodus, we should again find the crocodile in v. 14. But it is at least equally probable that the allusion is to the creation of the world (vv. 16, 17), and to the mythological sea-monsters then vanquished. Leviathan here has several heads; the great serpent of Babylonian tradition had seven. Isaiah 27:1 distinguishes between two leviathans, the flying serpent, and the crooked or coiled serpent — symbols of two heathen kingdoms. The identlflcation of the kingdoms depends on the date of the prophecy: Assyria and Babylon, Persia and Greece, Syria and Parthia, are rival suggestions. The species of sea-monster pointed to in Psalms 104 is left indefinite. The leviathan (RV; AV ‘their mourning’) aroused by magicians (Job 3:8) is most hkely a denizen of the abyss which threatens the world with destruction. Many, however, take him to be the mythical sky-dragon which was supposed to cause eclipses. It will be noted that there is a close connexion between leviathan and the watery world. Robertson Smith held that it is a personification of the water-spout (RS^, p. 178). The Apocalyptic and Rabbinical writers gave full scope to their fancy in dealing with this theme. Leviathan and Behemoth were created on the fifth day, and the depths of the sea were assigned to the former as his abode; during the last quarter of each day God plays with him (as the LXX and some recent expositors interpret Psalms 104:26) ; the Jordan empties itself into his mouth; his flesh will be for food to the godly in the days of the Messiah; part of his skin will be made into a tent for them, whilst the rest is spread on the walls of Jerusalem, and its brightness is visible to the ends of the earth (En 60:7 ff.: 2 Esdras 6:49. Apoo. Baruch 29:4; Aboda zara, 36; Baba bathra, 7ib; Targ. on Numbers 11). Cf. art. Behemoth.

J. Taylok.

Levirate Law

See Marriage, § 4.

Levis

Wrongly taken in 1 Esdras 9:14 as a proper name; in Ezra 10 ‘Shabbethai the Levite’ stands in place of ‘Levis and Sabbateus.’

Levites

See Levi, and Priests and Levites.

Levitical Cities

See Priests and Levites,