Stoics – Syene

Stoics

When St. Paul met representatives of the Stoic philosophy at Athens (Acts 17:18), that school had been in existence for about three centuries and a half. The name came from the Stoa or Porch where Zeno (about B.C. 340-265), the founder of the school, taught at Athens.

The leading Stoic maxim is, ‘Live according to nature.’ Nature both in the world and in man is to be interpreted by its highest manifestation — Reason — which appears in the world as the all-pervading ethereal essence or spirit, forming and animating the whole; and in man as the soul. This World-spirit occupies the place of God in the Stoic system. Thus we find St. Paul quoting the words of a Stoic writer, ‘We are also his offspring’ (Acts 17:28). The approximation, however, is in language rather than in reality. The theology of the Stoics is pure pantheism. Their so-called God has no independent or personal existence.

The supremacy of reason in man is pushed to such an extreme that virtuous conduct demands the entire suppression of the emotional side of man’s nature. This rigorous moral standard became, for practical reasons, considerably modified; but Stoic morality was always marked by its rigidity and coldness.

The great quality of Stoicism, which set it above Epicureanism, and brought it into line with Christianity, was its mcrral earnestness. In his dissertation on ‘St. Paul and Seneca’ Bp. Lightfoot has said, ‘Stoicism was the only philosophy which could even pretend to rival Christianity in the earlier ages of the Church." Perhaps there was in St. Paul’s mind at Athens the high hope of bringing to the side of Christ such a noble rival of the gospel. Yet Stoicism and Christianity ran parallel rather than came into contact with one another, until through the weakness inherent in its theology and its ethics the current of Stoic philosophy was dissipated and lost. W. M. M’Donald.

Stomach

This English word occurs in 2 Maccabees 7:21 with the meaning of ‘courage,’ ‘Stirring up her womanish thoughts with a manly stomach.’

Stomacher

Stomacher is the EV tr. of petMgU, whose meaning (Isaiah 3:24 only) is very uncertain. The Eng. word ‘stomacher’ was applied to that part of a woman’s dress which covered the breast and the pit of the stomach. It was usually much ornamented, and was looked upon as an evidence of wealth.

Stone

I. In OT. — 1. Several different words are rendered ‘stone,’ but the one of by far the most frequent occurrence is ‘ebhen, which has the same wide range of application as its English equivalent. Palestine is a stony country, arid the uses to which stone was put were numerous and varied. In its natural state a stone served for a pillow (Genesis 28:18) or a seat (Exodus 17:12), for covering the mouth of a well (Genesis 29:2 ff.) or closing the entrance to a cave (Joshua 10:18; cf. Matthew 27:60 etc.). Out of it, again, might be constructed a knife (Exodus 4, Heb. tsar. RV’ flint ‘), a vessel (7:19; ct. John 2:6). a mill (Deuteronomy 24). Above all, stone was employed in architecture. Houses (Leviticus 14:42 etc.), walls (Nehemiah 4, Habakkuk 2:11), towers (by implication in Genesis 11:3), and especially the Temple (1 Kings 5:17 f. etc.), are referred to as built of stone. We read of foundation-stones (1 Kings 5:17), of a corner-stone (Psalms 118:22), of a head-stone or flnial (Zee 4:7) and in 2 Kings 16:17 mention is made of a pavement of stone. Masonry was a regular trade (2 Samuel 5:11 etc.), and stonehewing is frequently referred to (2 Kings 12:12 etc.). Belonging to the aesthetic and luxurious side of life are precious stones and the arts of cutting and graving and setting them (Exodus 28:9, 11 31:5 etc.); see, further, Jewels and Pkecious Stones. The profusion of stones made it natural to use them as missiles. Stone-throwing might be a mark of hatred and contempt (2 Samuel 16:6, 13), or the expedient of murderous intentions against which provision had to be made in legislation (Exodus 21:18. Numbers 35:17). In war, stones were regular weapons of offence. Usually they were hurled with slings (1 Samuel 17:49. 1 Chronicles 12:2), but, later, great stones were discharged by means of’ engines ‘(2 Chronicles 26:15, 1 Maccabees 6:51). Stoning to death was a natural and convenient method of execution. At first an expression of popular fury (Joshua 7). it was afterwards regulated by law as an appointed means of capital punishment (Deuteronomy 17:5–7; cf. Acts 7:58 f.). See, further, Grimes and Ponishments, § 10. The use of stones as memorials was common. Sometimes a single large stone, at other times a heap of stones, was raised (Genesis 31:45 f.: Joshua 8:29 24). Akin to this was their employment to mark a boundary (Joshua 15:6 etc.). Stones would be the ordinary landmarks between the fields of one person and another, the removal of which was strictly forbidden (Deuteronomy 19:14 etc.). In religious worship stones were employed in the forms of the pillar (Genesis 28:18, 22 31:45 35:14) and the altar. The latter was at first a single great stone (1 Samuel 6:14 f.), but afterwards was built of several stones,[which must be unhewn (Exodus 20:25, Deuteronomy 27). See, further, ]?illar and Altak. The use of stone for literary purposes (cf . the Moabite Stone) is illustrated by the tables of stone on which the Decalogue was written (Exodus 24:12 etc.) and the inscribed stones of the altar on Mt. Ebal (Deuteronomy 27:2 ff.; Joshua 8:30 ff.).

2. Stones -testicles (Leviticus 21:20. Deuteronomy 23:1, Job 40:17).

II. In NT. — Here litiws is the ordinary word, and is found in most of the connexions already referred to. Noteworthy is the fact that Jesus, after quoting Psalms 118:22 took the rejected and exalted stone as a symbol of Himself(Mt 21; Luke 20:17 f.). St. Peter adopts the symbol in his address to the Sanhedrin (Acts 4:11). and enlarges it, with further reference to Isaiah 8:14 28:16, in his figure of the ‘living stone,’ which is at once the foundation of God’s spiritual house and a stone of stumbling to the disobedient(1 P 2:4–8). The stone (.petros) of John 1:42 should be ‘rock,’ or still better ‘Peter’ (RV) ; ‘stony’ (.petrSdSs) in Matthew 13:5, Mark 4:5, 16 should be ‘rocky.’ The ‘white stone’ of Revelation 2:17 represents Gr. psephos, ‘a pebble,’ and the ref . perhaps is to the tessara gladiatoria bestowed on the victorious young gladiator. J. C. Lambekt.

Stone-squarers

Only 1 Kings 5 AV; RVhas Gebalites as Joshua 13:5 RV, that is, men of the Phoenician city of Gebal, mentioned Ezekiel 27:9. where the ancients and wise men of Gebal are referred to as calkers of ships. It has recently been suggested that the gentilic name had become an appellative in the sense of ‘stonecutter’ iSBOT, ‘Kings,’ 83 f.), which is the meaning of AV. Others would emend to read ‘did hew them and border them,’ i.e. provide the stones with marginal drafts or with bevels. Cf. Arts and Cbafts, § 3. A. R. S. Kennedy.

Stones, Precious

See Jewels and Pbecious Stones.

Stool

‘In older English (including AV) " stool" was used freely for any kind of seat’ (.DB iv. 621); similarly the Heb. kissd’ includes both chairs and stools, see House, § 8. In the difficult passage Exodus 1:16 the word rendered ‘stools’ in the sense of birth-stools (sella parturientis) must be pointed to read ‘stones’ I’abndyim for ‘obndyim., bothjdual number), the reference being to the two stones or bricks on which a woman sat during her accouchement. This widely spread custom has been conclusively shown to have existed in ancient Egypt by Spiegelberg (JEgypt. Randglossen, 19-25), from the realistic representation preserved in an early hieroglyphic sign for birth, confirmed by literary references. A. R. S. Kennedy.

Storax

See Spice, Stacte.

Stork

Stork (.chdsidah, Leviticus 11:19. Deuteronomy 14:18, Job 39:13. Psalms 104:17. Jeremiah 8:7. Zee 5:9). — The stork (Arab, abu said ‘father of good luck ‘) is a bird much loved in Palestine, where in its migration northwards it arrives in the spring (Jeremiah 8:7) it does great good by clearing the crops of caterpillars and locusts: when the storks arrive plentifully, it is anticipated that the harvests will be unusually good. These birds may be seen walking through the grain or circling round and round in groups high in the heavens. No doubt this powerful flight caused its wings to be noted (Job 39, Zee 5:8). No native would dream of harming it; its sacred character may have caused it to be an’ unclean’ bird (Leviticus 11:19. Deuteronomy 14:18). Its Heb. name, implying ‘lovingkindness,’ was given because of its tender care of its young. The above remarks apply specially to the white stork (Ciconia alba); a black stork (C nigra) has also been identified in the Holy Land. E. W. G. Masteeman.

Storm

See Galilee [Sea of], 3; Whielwind.

Story

(EV for’ ‘storey’). See House, § 6.

Strait

This Eng. word is used in AV in the literal sense of ‘narrow,’ and in the figurative sense of ‘strict’ (of which it is simply another form). Once the verb ‘strait’ occurs, Sus a ‘I am straited on every side.’

Strange Fire

See Nadab.

Stranger

This seems, on the whole, the most suitable English word by which to render the Heb. zar, which is a participle denoting primarily one who turns aside, one who goes out of the way, i.e. for the purpose of visiting or dwelling in another country. It has frequently the meaning foreigner, in contrast to ‘Israelite,’ especially with the added notion of hostility (cf. ‘estranged’), and in antithesis to ‘Israel’ (.e.g. Hos T 8’, Isaiah 1:7, Ezekiel 7:21 11:9, Joel 3:17, Ob", Psalms 54:3 etc.). In P the word takes on a technical meaning found nowhere outside the Hexateuch, and exclusively post-exilic. It means ‘layman’ (which might with advantage be substituted for EV ‘stranger’), as opposed to a Levite (see Numbers 1:51 18:7), or to a priest proper, or Aaronite (see Exodus 29:33 30:33, Numbers 3:10, 38 18:2, Leviticus 22:10, 12 f. (H)).

The ‘strange woman’ of Proverbs 2 etc. has the same technical sense as ‘foreign woman’ with which it stands in parallelism, viz. harlot.

Sojourner (sometimes tr. of tSsfidb, ‘settler’ [see below]) is frequently substituted by RV for the AV ‘stranger,’ as tr. of ffSr. The ger was originally a man who transferred himself from one tribe or people to another, seeking, and usually obtaining, some of the rights of natives. A whole clan or tribe might be girim, in Israel, as e.g. the Gibeonites (Joshua 9), the Beerothites (2 Samuel 4:2). The Israelites are themselves often spoken of as ‘sojourners’ in the land of Egypt (see Genesis 15:13, Exodus 22:21 23:9. Leviticus 19:24 (H), Deuteronomy 10:19 23:7 etc.). In the oldest Israelitish code (the Book of the Covenant, Exodus 21:1 to 23:13), the ffSr is protected against injustice and violence (21:20 23:9). The D code (c. b.c. 620) goes much further, for, besides making more explicit and urgent the duty of defending, helping, and even loving the ‘sojourner’ (Deuteronomy 10:18 14:29 24:14, 19), and also securing to him his rights (24:17 27:1–9), the ger was to be allowed to participate in the three great annual feasts (Deuteronomy 16:11 ff.; cf. 5:14 and Exodus 23:12). He is not, however, compelled, though allowed, to follow his protector’s religion (Deuteronomy 14:29, 1 Kings 11:7). That he occupies a status inferior to that of the bom Israelite is indicated by the fact that he is classed with the widow and orphan as needing special consideration (lO’s 14:29 29), and that the right of intermarrying is denied him (7:1 ff. 23). When, however, we come to P and to other parts of the OT which belong to the same stage of history and religion, we find the ‘sojourner’ almost on an equal footing with the native Israelite, — he is fast becoming, and is almost become, the proselyte of NT and Rabbinical times. His position has now religious rather than political significance. He is expected to keep the Sabbath and to observe the Day of Atonement, as well as the three great feasts (Leviticus 16:29). He is to eat unleavened bread during Passover week {Ex 12; Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread are now blended), and, if circumcised (not otherwise), to keep the full Passover Itself. But the ffSr is not even yet the full equal of the Israelite, for he is not compelled to be circumcised, and no one can belong to the congregation who has not submitted to that rite (Exodus 12:47 ff.; Numbers 9:14) ; he has not yet received the right of Intermarriage (Genesis 34:14). and is prohibited from keeping Jewish slaves (Leviticus 25:47 ff.).

The closing of the ranks of Judaism, helped by the Exile, by the reforms of Ezra and Nehemiah, by the Samaritan schism, and consummated by the Maccabsan wars, led to the complete absorption of the ‘sojourner.’ The word proaelytos (representing the Heb. ffSr), common in classical Greek for one who has come to a place (Lat. advena), acquired in Hellenistic Greek the meaning which meets us often in the NT (Matthew 23:15, Acts 2:6 etc.). See Phoselyte.

The indiscriminate use of ‘stranger’ with the meaning of ‘sojourner,’ and of ‘alien’ and ‘foreigner’ is very confusing. ‘Foreigner’ is the proper rendering of Heb. nokri. The Heb. tBshSb Qit. ‘dweller’) is a post-exilic substitute for ger (‘sojourner’) in the original non-religeous sense of the latter. For the sake of distinction It might be uniformly rendered ‘settler’ (EV ‘sojourner,’‘stranger,’ ‘foreigner’). See, for the relations of Israel to foreigners proper, art. Nations.

T. WiTTON Davies.

Strangling

This is suggested as a mode of death. Job 7:15. The cognate verb describes the manner of Ahithophel’s self-inflicted death (2 Samuel 17:23. EV ‘hanged himself; cf. Matthew 27:5 of Judas). The idea conveyed is death by suffocation, not necessarily produced by suspension. Elsewhere, where hanging is mentioned in EV as a mode of punishment, some form of impalement is intended (see Crimes and Punishments, § 10).

In the pastoral letter sent down by the Council of Jerusalem to the early converts from heathenism, these are instructed to abstain inter aha ‘from blood and from things strangled’ (Acts 15:29, cf. v. 20 21:25). Both belong to the category of Jewish food taboo (Food, § 10). The former refers to the prohibition against eating meat which had not been thoroughly drained of the blood, the second to the similar taboo affecting the flesh of animals not slaughtered according to the very minute Rabbinical rules then in force. Thus in the Talmudic treatise ChuUin, specially devoted to this subject, it is laid down (i. 2) that ‘any one may slaughter . . . with any instrument except a harvest-sickle, a saw, etc., because these strangle,’ in other words, they do not make the clean incision required for proper slaughter. ‘What is strangled’ (Acts 15:20 RV) or strangled meat is thus seen to be a current technical term of the Jewish sMkhltd or ritual of slaughter. In modern phrase the Gentile converts were to eat only kSsher meat.

A. R. 8. Kennedy.

Straw, Stubble

In Heb. the former is teben, the latter qash, and to Western ideas the one is as much ‘straw’ as the other. The distinction between the two is as follows: teben, the modern tibn, is the mixture of chopped straw and chaff, produced by the action of the threshing-drag and winnowed out by the fan (.iGEicnLTTiEE, § 3), as distinguished from the grains of wheat (so Jeremiah 23:28 where ‘straw’ RV, and ‘chaff’ AV are both inadequate). It is mentioned as the food of horses, asses, and camels. In reaping, as is still the custom, the stalks were cut knee-high or over; the length of stalk left standing is qash. Accordingly, when the Hebrews in Egypt ‘gathered stubble for straw’ (Exodus 5:12). what they did was to pull up the stalks of wheat left standing in the fields and cut them up into short pieces suitable for brick-making, instead of being allowed to procure the tibn ready to their hand from the local threshing-floors. Since the cornstalks were usually burned as manure, ‘stubble’ is frequently found in metaphors suggested by this practice (Isaiah 5:24 47:14 etc.). In other passages containing reference explicit or implied to ‘driven stubble’ (41:3), the smaller fragments of chopped straw which the wind blew away with the chaff from the threshing-floor may be intended. A. R. S. Kennedy.

Street

See City.

Strength of Israel

The EV tr. of the Divine title nSisocA Yisra’U in 1 Samuel 15:29. Probably a more accurate rendering would be ‘Glory of Israel.’

Stripes

See Crimes, etc. (‘Beating’), 9.

Strong Drink

See Wine and Strong Drink.

Stronghold

See City, Fortification and Siegecraft.

Stubble

See S’rRAW.

Stuff

In Luke 17:31 and elsewhere in AV ‘stuff’ means ‘furniture’; cf. Udall’s tr. of Erasmus’ Paraphrase, i. 7, ‘All that ever they had about them of stufEe or furniture.’

Stumbling-block

Stumbling-block (Gr. skandalon; AV ‘offence,’ ‘occasion to fall,’ ‘stumbling-block’; RV ‘stumbling-block,’ ‘thing that causes stumbling,’ ‘occasion of stumbling’), — Properly the spring of a trap (cf. Romans 11:9) hence something that ensnares or trips up. The verb is skandalizein; AV ‘offend,’ RV ‘cause to stumble.’

David Smith.

Sua

Sua (1 Esdras 5:29) =Ezr 2:44 Siaha, Nehemiah 7:47 Sia.

Suah

An Asherite (1 Chronicles 7:36).

Subai

Subai (1 Esdras 5:30) -Ezr 2:46 Shamlai, Nehemiah 7:48 Salmai.

Sub as

A family of ‘Solomon’s servantse (1 Esdras 5:34).

Suburb

This word is used in AV in two quite distinct senses. (1) In 2 Kings 23:11 a certain chamber, really within the Temple precincts, is said to have been ‘in the suburbs’ (Heb. parvar, RV ‘precincts’). Practically the same original is retained as a proper name — Parbar, 1 Chronicles 26:18 (RVm ‘the Precinct’), where the reference is probably to the same spot as in the former passage. Modern scholars find in this mysterious parbar or parvar a designation of the western colonnade (or part thereof) of the Temple (see Parbar).

(2) In all other instances ‘suburbs’ occurs only in connexion with the so-called Levitical cities, as the rendering — derived from the Vulg. suburbana (fields, etc., close to a city) — of a Heb. word meaning ‘pasturegrounds.’ Each of the 48 cities, according to Numbers 35:2 ff.; is to be provided with a square tract of land measuring 2000 cubits — roughly 1000 yards — each way, which is to serve the Levites as a common pasture ground ‘for their cattle and for their substance and for all their beasts’ (v. RV, cf. the lists in Joshua 21:2–42, 1 Chronicles 6). A. R. S. Kennedy.

Sucathites

See Soco, 1.

Succoth

A place first mentioned in Genesis 33:17, where it is said to have been so called because Jacob, on his return from Haran to Canaan, halting at it after his wrestling with the angel at Penuel, built there ‘booths’ (Heb. succSth) for his cattle. Gideon also, after crossing the Jordan in his pursuit of the Midianites, passed Succoth, and afterwards ‘went up’ to Penuel (Judges 8). The name has not been preserved; and the site is thus matter of conjecture. From the passages quoted and other notices it is clear that it was E. of the Jordan; and it may further be inferred that, while Penuel was close to the Jabbok (Genesis 32) on higher ground than Succoth, and to the E. or S.E. (Judges 8:5, 8. cf. v. 11). Succoth was on the route between Penuel and Shechem, which would pass most naturally over the ford ed- Damiyeh (a little S. of the point at which the Jabbok enters the Jordan), in the territory of Gad, in a ‘vale’ (Joshua 13:27, Psalms 60:6). — presumably, therefore, in that part of the Jordan valley through which the Jabbok flows into the Jordan, and which is very fertile. Jacob came from Mizpah (see No. 1 in art. s.v.), which is most naturally to be sought somewhere on the N. or N.E. of the Jebel ‘Ajlun; and any one journeying thence to the ford ed-Daraiyeh would naturally descend as soon as possible into the GhOr (or Jordan valley), and join the track which passes along it from N. to S. The rest of Jacob’s route would be consistent and intelligible, if Mahanaim (his last halting-place before Penuel, Genesis 32:2) were (say) at Deir ‘Aha, 4 miles N. of the ford by which the track down the GhOr crosses the Jabbok, Penuel near where the same track crosses the route from es-Salt to ed-Damiyeh (see the map), and Succoth on one of the lower terraces of the Jordan valley (which here sinks from -500 ft. to -1000 ft.), W. of the point just suggested for Penuel, S. of the Jabbok, and in the territory of Gad (Joshua 13:27). Whether towns actually stood at or near the sites thus indicated can, of course, be, determined only by excavation.

Succoth is said in the Talmud to have been called in later times Tar’alah or Dar’alah; and hence it has often been identified with Deir ‘Aha mentioned above. But it is very doubtful whether Deir ‘Aha has any connexion with this Talm. name; for Deir is a Syriac and Arabic word (common in names of places) meaning ‘monastery,’ which there is no reason whatever for seeing in the Tar or Dar (without the yod) of the Talm. name. Nor does the geographical position of Deir ‘Aha seem to agree with the narrative of either Jacob or Gideon. See, further. Driver in ExpT xiii. (1902), p. 4S7 £f., more briefly in Gen. p. 300 ff. S. R. Deivee.

Succoth

(meaning in Heb. ‘booths’). The name of the first encampment in the Exodus, which started from Rameses (Exodus 12:37 13:20. Numbers 33:5, 6). It is probably the Egyptian Thuke, the same as or near to Fithom (wh. see), capital of the 8th nome, and situated in the Wady Tumilat. F. Ll. Griffith.

Succoth-benoth

Succoth-benoth (2 Kings 17:30). A deity whose image was made and set up in Samaria by the colonists from Babylon. ‘Benoth’ (LXX Banith) suggests ‘Banitu’ as it appears in the name ZarpanUu — in the inscriptions Zer-banitu — the wife of Marduk, patron god of Babylon. But there is no certainty. Sayce (in Hastings’ DB) suggests that ‘Succoth’ may denote the ‘processional shrines’ in which the images were carried, ‘Benoth’ being corrupted iTomBettth or Belit, the classical Beltis, a common title and synonym of Zer-banUu.

W. EwiNO.

8UD. — The name of a river or canal of Babylon named in Baruch 1:4. This name has not yet been found in the literature of Babylonia, and it seems probable that there is a mistake in the text, the true reading being Sur. A Babylonian text mentions a river or canal in the neighbourhood of Babylon called Nar Sum, and this may be the stream intended. Its position is unknown. T. G. Pinches.

Sudias

Sudias (1 Esdras 5) = Ezra 2:40 Hodaviah.Neh 7 Hodevah.

Sukk

Sukk mi.— The name of a tribe led by Shishak against Juda3a (2 Chronicles 12:3). The identiflcation of the Sukkiim with the inhabitants of Suakin is very uncertain.

Sumek, Sumerians

See p. 69.

Sun

The first mention of the sun in the Bible is in Genesis 1. as ‘the greater light to rule the day.’ It was looked upon as the greatest and most important of the heavenly bodies, and motion was attributed to it, as is still done in ordinary parlance. We read of the going down of the sun, and of its rising; of the increasing force of its heat as the day went on (Exodus 16:21). of its influence in the production of the crops of the ground (‘the precious things of the fruits of the sun,’ Deuteronomy 33:14). The sun ‘goeth forth in his might’ (Judges 5:31). The situation of a place is spoken of as ‘toward the sunrising," i.e. to the east (.e.g. Numbers 34:15). Things that were notorious and done openly were said to be’ before or in the sight of the sun.’ But while the sun is strong, the power of God is greater still. This is expressed in Job’s assertion (9:7) that God ‘commandeth the sun and it riseth not.’ ‘The power of the sun affects the complexion (‘I go blackened, but not by the sun,’ Job 30:28 RVm; ct. Song of Songs 1:6). and even causes death. A case of death by sunstroke occurs in 2 Kings 4:18–19, and this power is alluded to in Psalms 121:6 ‘The sun shall not smite thee by day.’ The light of the sim is cheering: ‘a pleasant thing it is for the eyes to behold the sun’ (Ecclesiastes 11:7). Contrivances for measuring the length of the day by the shadow cast by the sun were Invented: we have some kind of dial, of which steps formed a part, indicated in 2 Kings 20:9, 11. Isaiah 38:8. Though there is no actual mention of an eclipse in the Bible, part of the language used in describing the terrors of the day of the Lord both in OT and NT is derived from such an event: ‘the sun shall be turned into darkness’ (Joel 2:31). ‘the sun became black as sackcloth of hair’ (Revelation 6:12). On the other hand, the brilliance and glory of the future life is portrayed by comparison with the sun. ‘Then shall the righteous shine forth as the sun’ (Matthew 13:43) ‘The light of the sun shall be sevenfold’ (Isaiah 30:26) and even the sun will not be required, for, as in Psalms 84:11 ‘the Lord God is a sun,’ so in Revelation 21:23 (ct. 22:5) ‘the city hath no need of the sun ... for the glory of God did lighten it.’ The wonders of the day of Joshua’s victory over the Amorites, when at his command the sun and moon are said to have stood still (Joshua 10:12–14), were long remembered by the Israelites (Habakkuk 3:11, Sirach 46:4).

The power and influence of the sun over the natural world would soon lead to its being personified and worshipped, inasmuch as what was done upon earth was done ‘under the sun.’ In one of Joseph’s dreams there is a personification of the sun (Genesis 37:9). In the Book of Deuteronomy (4:19) there is a caution against sun-worship, and the punishment of death by stoning is assigned to the convicted worshipper of the sun (17:3). whilst in Job 31) there is an allusion to a superstitious salutation of the sun by the kissing of the hand. Sun-pillars, or obelisks used in the worship of the sun, are mentioned frequently in the OT, e.g. Exodus 23:24, Leviticus 26:30, 2 Chronicles 14:3. Isaiah 17:8, Ezekiel 6:4; and in Phcenicia, a solar Baal, Baal-Hammon, was worshipped. Sun-worship itself was, in the later days of the kingdom of Judah at any rate, one of the permitted forms of worship in Jerusalem. Sun-images are mentioned in 2 Ch. (14:5) as existing in all the cities of Judah as early as the reign of Asa. In Josiah’s reformation those who burnt incense to the sun were put down (2 Kings 23:5), while the chariots of the sun were burned with fire (after being hewn down according to 2 Chronicles 34:4, 7), and ‘the horses that the kings of Judah had given to the sun’ were taken away (2 Kings 23:11). There was a great chariot of the sun at Sippar in Babylonia. We gather from Ezekiel 8:16 that this sun-worship actually took place in the inner court at the door of the Temple, between the porch and the altar ; the worshippers turned their backs upon the Temple itself, and worshipped the sun towards the east. Certain places where this worship appears to have been most popular took the name Be.th-shemesh (wh. see), ‘house of the sim,’ from the fact.

We must not forget, in conclusion, that. In one Messianic passage (Mai 4:2), the coming deliverer is spoken of as ‘the sun of righteousness.’

H. A. Redpath.

Sunstroke

See preced. art. and Medicine, p. 599i>.

Superscription

See Title, and Money, § 6.

Suph

A place-name in Deuteronomy 1:1 ‘In the Arabah over against Suph’; AV reads ‘over against the Red Sea,’ in which case it has been assumed that the word for ‘Sea’ had fallen out in the received Hebrew text. Suph means ‘weeds,’ and the ‘Sea of Weeds’ was the Hebrew name of the Red Sea. The AV is almost certainly correct; the expression was so understood also by LXX and Vulgate. It is evident that by the ‘Red Sea’ the Gulf of ‘Akabah is meant, as in Numbers 21:4 and elsewhere. J. F. McCubdy.

Suphah

An unknown locality E. of Jordan (Nu 21").

Supper

See Meals, 2; and for the ‘Last Supper’ see Eucharist.

Sur

1. A gate (2 Kings 11:6). See Jbeusalem (II. 4). 2. A town on the seacoast of Palestine (Judith 2:28). The site, if a different place from Tyre, is unknown.

Susa

See Shushan.

Susanna

See Apocrypha, § 5.

Susi

A Manassite (Numbers 13:12 (">).

Swallow

1. derOr (Psalms 84:3, Proverbs 26:2). The allusion to the nesting of this bird in the sanctuary and its swift (unalighting) flight fits the swallow. 2. ‘OgHr (Isaiah 38:14, Jer S’). See Crane. 3. s««, «?s, should be tr. as in RV (Isaiah 38:14, Jeremiah 8:7), , ‘swallow’ instead of ‘crane’ (A V) . See Crane. Some ten species of swallows and swifts or martins are common in the Holy Land.

SWAN {tinahemeth, Leviticus 11:18, Deuteronomy 14:16). — Swans have been found in Palestine, but are very rare. The tr. of AV cannot be defended. See Owl, 5.

E. W. G. Masterman.

Swearing

See Oaths.

Sweet Cane

See Reed.

Swine

(cftiKCr). Domesticated swine were probably kept in the East in the earliest historic times, when they appear to have been regarded as sacred. In a cave associated with the earliest place of sacrifice at ancient Gezer, in use certainly before b.o. 2000, large quantities of pigs’ bones were found. It was the sacrosanct character of swine that lay at the root of the prohibition in Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:8) and the eating of swine’s flesh and offering of swine’s blood (Isaiah 65:4 66:3, 17) are clearly regarded as a sign of lapse into paganism. The heathen frequently tried to compel the Jews to eat swine’s flesh (.e.g. 2 Mac &■‘7:1) and thus renounce their religion. The contempt felt for swine is shown by the proverbs quoted in Pr. ll^*, Matthew 7:6. and 2 Peter 2:22. In the Talmudic writings the pig appears as the emblem of uncleanness, and those who keep swine are regarded with aversion. The same ideas colour the parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15). where he is depicted as reaching the lowest depth of infamy in being sent to feed swine, and actually being reduced to covet their food; and also the narrative of the demoniacs, where the Gentile inhabitants of Gerasa lose their great herd of swine (Matthew 8:30, Mark 6:13. 8:32).

In modem Palestine very much the same feeling survives. Cliamlr ‘pig’ is a common but very opprobrious appellation. Swine’s flesh is loathed by Jews and Moslems; the latter, who otherwise eat the same food as Christians, are always very suspicious that any unknown food may be contaminated with it. Pigs are not common in Palestine; they are kept by German colonists and in a few places by native Christians. In Rameh in Galilee, for example, considerable herds are kept and pastured in the surrounding fields. Horses, unfamiliar with their smell are much perturbed on approaching the village, and it is said that the cattle will not touch the water of the stream below where the swine are accustomed to resort.

E. W. G. Masterman.

Sword

See Armour, Arms, § 1 (c).

Sycamine

(Luke 17:6). sykaminos ia, strictly speaking,

the black mulberry (Morus nigra the tvi shdmi of the

Syrians), and it is probably this tree that is referred to

in Luke 17:6 and in 1 Maccabees 6:34. But sykaminos is also used in LXX in many passages as the equivalent of the shiqmtm or sycomore (wh. see). E. W. G. Masterman.

SYCHAR, — ■ A city of Samaria,’ near to the parcel of ground that Jacob gave to his son Joseph (John 4). Jerome in Onomast. distinguishes Sychar from Shechem, but in Ep. Paul, and Quwst. Gen. he identifies them, saying that the form Sychar is due to a scribal error. Much ingenuity has been exercised to show that the names are really identical, or at least apply to the same city. On the face of it this is unlikely. In a.d. 333 the Itinerary of Jerusalem places Sychar one mile E. of Shechem — in this agreeing with other ancient authorities. Canon Williams first suggested identification with ‘Askar, a village on the skirt of Ebal, about two miles E. of Nablus. The main objection to this is the presence of a copious spring, more than sufficient to supply the village; while from John 41 we learn that the woman of Sychar was accustomed to go’ all the way’ (RV) to Jacob’s Well for domestic supplies. Further, there is nothing to indicate a pre-Arab settlement at ‘Askar. Mr. Macalister iPEFSt, 1907, p. 92 ff.) draws attention to the mound Tvlili BaiiUa, a little nearer to Nablus, just N. of the hamlet Balata, which bears evidence of occupation from the period of the Hebrew monarchy to Roman times.

Jacob’s Well, according to unanimous and unbroken tradition, lies about half a mile to the E. of TulOl Balata, on the S. edge of the plain, at the foot of Gerizim. Formerly of great depth (John 4:11), it is now much filled with rubbish, and is not more than 75 ft. deep. Depending on the percolation of surface water, with the greater depth the supply would be constant; but now it is dry before the summer is far advanced. The sacred associations of the Well, and the ‘lightness’ of the water, compared with the hardness of that from the spring, would form attractions in early, as in modern times. With no other ancient settlement near the Well, we may with some confidence place Sychar at Tuim Balata. With the ruin of the village the name may have migrated to ‘Askar. W. Ewing.

Sycomore

Sycomore (.shigmlm. 1 Kings 10:27. 1 Chronicles 27:28, 2 Chronicles 1:15 9", Isaiah 9:10, Amos 7:14; shiqmSth, Psalms 78:47; (Gr.) sykomorea, Luke 19:4). — This is the sycomore fig (FicHs sycamorus), a tree often 50 feet high, with an enormous trunk. It bears poor figs (Amos 7:14), but furnishes good timber. It is not to-day ‘in abundance’ as of old (1 Kings 10:27), but considerable numbers Sourish still in the plain around Jaffa. This tree must not be confused with the ‘sycamore’ (Acer pseudo-platanus) of our home lands, which is a species of maple. See also Sycamine.

E. W. G. Masterman.

Syene

See Seveneh.