Dispersion – Dreams

Dispersion

The name (Gr. Diaspora) given to the Jewish communities outside Palestine (2 Maccabees 1:27, John 7:35. James 1:1. 1 Peter 1:1). It ts uncertain when the establishment of these non-Palestinian communities began. It appears from 1 Kings 20:34 that an Israelltish colony was established in Damascus in the reign of Ahab, Possibly the similar alliances of David and Solomon with Phoenicia had established similar colonies there. In the 8th cent. Tiglath-pileser iii. carried many Israelites captive to Assyria (2 Kings 15:29), and Sargon transported from Samaria 27,-290 Hebrews (cf. KIB ii. 65), and settled them in Mesopotamia and Media (2 Kings 17:6). As the Deuteronomic law had not at this date differentiated the religion of Israel sharply from other Semitic religions(cf. Israel), it is doubtful whether these communities maintained their identity. Probably they were absorbed and thus lost to Israel.

The real Dispersion began with the Babylonian Exile. Nebuchadnezzar transplanted to Babylonia the choicest of the Judaean population (2 Kings 24:12–16 25:11. Jeremiah 52:15). Probably 50,000 were transported, and Jewish communities were formed in Babylonia at many points, as at Tel-abib (Ezekiel 3:15) and Casiphia (Ezra 8:17). Here the Jewish religion was maintained; prophets like Ezekiel and priests like Ezra sprang up, the old laws were studied and worked over, the Pentateuch elaborated, and from this centre Jews radiated to many parts of the East (Nehemiah 1:1 ff.: Tobit 1:9–22. Isaiah 11:11). Thus the Jews reached Media, Persia, Cappadocia, Armenia, and the Black Sea. Only a few of these Babylonian Jews returned to Palestine. They maintained the Jewish communities in Babylonia till about A.D. 1000. Here, after the beginning of the Christian era, the Babylonian Talmud was compiled.

In B.C. 60S, Necho took king Jehoahaz and probably others to Egypt. In this general period colonies of Jews were living at Memphis, Migdol, Tahpanhes, and Pathros in Egypt (Jeremiah 44:1). Papyri recently discovered prove the existence of a large Jewish colony and a Jewish temple at the First Cataract, in the 5th cent. B.C. Other Jews seem to have followed Alexander the Great to Egypt (Jos. BJ II. xvlil. 8; c. Apion. ii. 4). Many others migrated to Egypt under the Ptolemys (Ant. xii. i. 1, ii. 1 H.). Philo estimated the number of Jews in Egypt in the reign of Caligula (a.d. 38-41) at a million.

Josephus states that Seleucus i. (312-280) gave the Jews rights in all’the cities founded by him in Syria and Asia (Ant. xii. iii. 1). This has been doubted by some, who suppose that the spread of Jews over Syria occurred after the Maccabsean uprising (168-143). At all events by the 1st cent. B.C. Jews were in all this region, as well as in Greece and Rome, in the most important centres about the Mediterranean, and had also penetrated to Arabia (Acts 2:11).

At Leontopolis in Egypt, Onias iii., the legitimate Aaronic high priest, who had left Palestine because he hated Antiochus iv., founded, about B.C. 170, a temple which was for a century a mild rival of the Temple in Jerusalem. With few exceptions the Dispersion were loyal to the religion of the home land. Far removed from the Temple, they developed in the synagogue a spiritual religion without sacrifice, which, after the destruction of Jerusalem in a.d. 70, kept Judaism alive. All Jews paid the annual half-shekel tax for the support of the Temple-worship, and at the great feasts made pilgrimages to Jerusalem from all parts of the world (Acts 2:10, 11). They soon lost the use of Hebrew, and had the Greek translation — the Septuagint — made for their use. Contact with the world gave them a broader outlook and a wider thought than the Palestinian Jews, and they conceived the idea of converting the world to Judaism. For use in this propaganda the Sibylline Oracles and other forms of literature likely to interest Grseco-Boman readers were produced.

George A. Barton.

Distaff

See Spinning and Weaving.

Dives

See Lazarus, 2.

Divination

See Magic, Divination, and Sorcery.

Divorce

See Marriage.

Dizahab

The writer of Dt. 1’ thought of this as a town on the further side of the Jordan, in the ‘Arabah, on the border of Moab,’ over against Suph,* and as belonging to a group of places which he names. Unfortunately the mention of them does not make the matter clear. The site of Suph is unknown. So is that of Paran. The proposed identification of Tophel with et-Taflle, S.S.E. of the Dead Sea, fails on phonetic grounds. If ‘Ain el-Hvderah., between Jebel Musa and’ Akabah, represents a Hazeroth, and if Laban=Libnah (Numbers 33:20). not tar from ‘Ain el-Hxiderah, these are at too great a distance from the’ Arabah. The same is to be said of Burckhardt’s suggestion that Mina ed-Dhahab, between the Has Muhammad and ‘Akabah, is the place of which we are in search. Most probably the text is corrupt. At Numbers 21:14 we find Suphah (Deuteronomy 1:1 Suph) in conjunction with Vaheb (see RV); and Vaheb, in the original, is almost the same as Zahab, which, indeed, the LXX reads. There seems to be some relationship between the two passages, but neither of them has so far been satisfactorily explained. At Genesis 36:39 we have Mezahab ( =’ waters of gold’): this gives a better sense than Dizahab, and may be the proper form of the name.

The Versions do not help us. The LXX has Katachrysea ( = ‘rich in gold’). The Vulg. (ubi auri est plurimum) takes the word as descriptive of the district, ‘where is gold in abundance.’ The Targums see in it an allusion to the golden calf. And we may add that Ibn Ezra thought it wa^ an unusual designation of a place which commonly went by another name. J. Taylor.

Doctor

In Luke 2:46 it is said that the boy Jesus was found in the Temple, ‘sitting in the midst of the doctors.’ The doctors were Jewish Rabbis. The Eng. word, like the Greek (didaskalos), means simply ‘teacher.’ So Luke 5:17 and Acts 6. where the Gr. for ‘doctor of the law’ is one word (nomodidaskalos). Bacon calls St. Paul ‘the Doctor of the Gentiles.’

Doctrine

The only word in the OT that RV as well as AV renders ‘doctrine’ is icgaft=‘instruction,’ Ut. ‘what is received’ (Deuteronomy 32:2, Job 11:4. Proverbs 4:2. Isaiah 29:24). In the NT ‘doctrine’ stands once for logos (Hebrews 6:1 AV ; but cf. RV), otherwise for didache and didaskalia, of which the former denotes esp. the act of teaching, the latter the thing that is taught. For didaskalia RV has usually retained ‘doctrine’ of AV, but in the case of didacM has almost invariably substituted ‘teaching.’ It is noteworthy that didaskalia is never used of the teaching of Jesus, always didaclil; also that didaskalia is found chiefly in the Pastoral Epp., and outside of these, with two exceptions (Bo 12:7 15). is used in a disparaging sense (Matthew 15:9. Mark 7:7. Ephesians 4:14. Col This is in keeping with the distinction between didache as ‘teaching’ and didaskalia as ‘doctrine.’ It reminds us that at first there were no formulations of Christian belief. The immediate disciples of Jesus had the Living Word Himself; the earliest generation of ChriS’ tians, the inspired utterances of Apostles and other Spirit-filled men. J. C. Lambert.

Dodanim

Named in the MT of Genesis 10:4 among the descendants of Javan, or lonians. The LXX and Sam. versions and the parallel passage 1 Chronicles 1:7 read Rodanim, i.e. Rhodians. Cf. the true reading of Ezk 27:15 under Dedan. J. F. McCdrdy.

N

D0DAVAH1T (‘beloved of J",’ AV Dodavah) .—Father of Eliezei of Mareshah, the prophet who censured Jehoshaphat for entering into alliance with Ahaziah (2 Chronicles 20:37).

Dodo

(so the Qerg, Kethibh Dodai). 1. The father of Eleazar, the second of the three captains who were over ‘the thirty’ (2 Samuel 23:9). In the parallel list (1 Chronicles 11:12) the name is given as Dodo and also ‘the Ahohite’ for the erroneous ‘son of Ahohl.’ In the third list (1 Chronicles 27:4) Dodai is described as general of the second division of the army, but the words ‘Eleazar the son of appear to have been accidentally omitted. The traditional spelling (Dodo) is most probably right: the name Dudu has been found on the Tell el- Amarna tablets, apparently as that of an Amorite official at the Egyp. court. 2. A Bethlehemite, father of Elhanan, one of’ the thirty’ {2 S 23:24. 1 Chronicles 11). 3. A man of Issachar, the forefather of Tola the judge (Judges 10:1).

Doe

RV (Proverbs 5:19). AV ‘roe,’ is in Heb. ya’ alah, the female ibex. See ‘Wild goat, s.v. Goat.

Doeg

An Edomite, and chief of the herdmen [or better, ‘runners,’ reading ha-ratslm for ha-rd’ Im] of king Saul. When David fled to Nob to Ahimelech (or Ahijah) the priest, Doeg was there ‘detained before the Lord.’ Upon his report Saul ordered Ahimelech and his companions to be slain. The order was carried out by Doeg, when the rest of the king’s guard shrank from obeying it (1 Samuel 21:7 22:9–19). Doeg is mentioned in the title of Ps. 52.

Dog

All the Bible references to dogs breathe the modern .Oriental feeling with regard to them; they refer to the common pariah dogs. These creatures are in all their ways repulsive, and in the majority of cases they have not even outward attractiveness. They live in and around the streets, and act as scavengers. In the environs of Jerusalem, e.g. the Valley of Hinnom, where carcases are cast out, they may be seen prowling around and consuming horrible, putrid bodies, or lying stretched near the rfemains of their meal, satiated with their loathsome repast. Whole companies of dogs consume the oftal of the slaughter-house. There is not the slightest doubt that they would consume human bodies to-day had they the opportunity ; indeed, cases do occur from time to time (cf. 1 Kings 14:11 16:4 21:19, 23 22:38. 2 Kings 9:10, 36. Jer 15:3. Psalms 68:23). All night they parade the streets (Ps Sg«. H-16), each company jealously guarding that district which they have annexed, and fighting with noisy onslaught any canine stranger who ventures to invade their territory. Such a quarrel may start all the dogs in the city into a hideous chorus of furious barks. In many parts these creatures are a real danger, and the wise man leaves them alone (Proverbs 26:17). When they attach themselves, quite uninvited, to certain houses or encampments, they defend them from all intruders (Isaiah 56:10). To call a man a ‘dog’ is a dire Insult, but by no means an uncommon one from an arrogant superior to one much below him, and to apply such an epithet to himself on the part of an inferior is an expression of humility (2 Kings 8:13 etc.). A ‘dead dog’ is an even lower stage; it is an all too common object, an unclean animal in a condition of putridity left unconsumed even by his companions (1 Samuel 24:14 etc.). The feeling against casting bread to a dog is a strong one; bread is sacred, and to cast it to dogs is even to-day strongly condemned in Palestine (Mark 7:27).

The shepherd dog (Job 30:1) is, as a rule, a very superior animal; many of these are handsome beasts of a Kurdish breed, and have the intelligent ways and habits of our best shepherds’ dogs at home.

Greyhounds are still bred by some Bedouin in S. Palestine, and are used for hunting the gazelle; they are treated very differently from the pariah dogs. Proverbs 30:31 is a very doubtful reference to the greyhound; RVm has ‘war horse,’ LXX ‘cock.’

The ‘price of a dog’ (Deuteronomy 23:18) evidently has reference to degraded practices of the qedeshtm (‘male prostitutes ‘) connected with the worship at’ Baal ‘temples.

E. W. G. Mastbrman.

Dok

A fortress near Jericho, where Simon the Maccabee, along with two of his sons, was murdered by his son-in-law Ptolemy, 1 Maccabees 16:15. The name survives in the modern ‘Ain DUk, 4 miles N.W. of Jericho.

Doleful Oeeatuee

See Jackal.

Dominion

Lordship, or the possession and exercise of the power to rule. In Gol 1« the word is used in the plural, along with ‘thrones, principalities, and powers,’ to denote supernatural beings possessed of the power of lordship, and ranking as so many kings, princes, and potentates of the heavenly regions. The same word in the singular, and inessentially the same meaning, appears in Ephesians 1:21. where allusion is made to the exaltation of Christ ‘far above all rule, and authority, and power, and dominion, and every name that is named, not only in this world, but also in that which is to come.’ There is no necessary reference in either of these texts to evil angels, but a comparison of what is written in Ephesians 2:2 6:12 shows that ‘the spiritual hosts of wickedness in the heavenly places’ need not be excluded. Similar indefinlteness is apparent in the other two passages, 2 Peter 2:10. Jude ‘, where the same word is found. It is understood by some to refer here to the lordship of civil rulers, or to any concrete representative of such lordship. Others believe that the reference is to angels, either good or evil, as representing some form of supernatural power and dominion, and the reference in the context to Michael, the archangel, not bringing a raihng judgment even against thedevil, may be thought to favour this view. A third explanation is also possible, and is favoured by the mention in Jude < of’ our only Master and Lord, Jesus Christ.’ Those ungodly men, who deny the Lord Jesus, would not hesitate to despise, set at nought, and rail at all manner of glorious lordships and dignities. See Authority, Power.

M. S. Terry.

Door, Doorkeeper, Doorpost

See House, § 6. For ‘doorkeeper’ in the Temple, see Priests and Levites.

Dophkah

A station in the itinerary of the children of Israel (Numbers 33:12 f.). This station and the next one, Alush, which lie between the ‘encampment by the sea’ and Rephidim, have not been identified, and they are not alluded to in Exodus. It is possible that Dophkah is an erroneous transcription of Mafkah, the name of an Egyp. district near the Wady Maghara.

Dor

One of the cities which joined Jabin against Joshua (Joshua 11:2). and whdse king was killed (12:23). It lay apparently on or near the border between Manasseh and Asher, so that its possession was ambiguous (17:11). The aborigines were not driven out (Judges 1:27). It was administered by Ben-abinadab for Solomon (1 Kings 4:11). Though Josephus refers to it as on the sea-coast, and it is traditionally equated to Tantura, north of Csesarea, the reference to the ‘heights of Dor’ rather suggests that it was in some hilly district such as the slope of the range of Carmel. The name seems quite forgotten. R. A. S. Macalister.

Dorcas

Dorcas (Gr. form of Aram. Tabitha, lit. ‘gazelle,’ Acts 9:36 ff.). — The name of a Christian woman at Joppa, ‘full of good works and alrasdeeds,’ who, having died, was raised by St. Peter’s prayer and the words ‘Tabitha, arise.’ The description recalls the ‘TaUtha cumi’ scene in Jairus’ house (Mark 5:41). A. J. Maclean.

Dorymenes

The father of Ptolemy Macron, who was a trusted friend of Antiochus Epiphanes (2 Maccabees 4:45). and was chosen by Lysias to command the Syrian army in Pal. in conjunction with Nicanor and Gorgias (1 Mac 3:38).

Dositheus

1 . The priest who, according to a note in one of the Greek recensions of .Esther, brought the book to Alexandria in the 4th year of Ptolemy Philometor (7) and Cleopatra, c. b.c. 178 (Ad. Esther 11). 2. A soldier of Judas Maccabseus, who made a vain attempt to take Gorgias prisoner (2 Maccabees 12:35). 3. A renegade Jew who frustrated the plot of Theodotus to assassinate king Ptolemy Philopator (3 Maccabees 1:3). 4. An officer of Judas Maccabaeus (2 Maccabees 12:19, 24).

DOT^A (Judith 3:9). Anotherform of Dothan (wh. see). AV has incorrectly Judcea.

Dothan

Dothan (Genesis 37:17, 2 Kings 6; Dotsea, Judith 3:9; Dothaim, Judith 4:6 etc.).— To-day, Tell Dothan, a remarkable isolated tiill at the S.E. comer of a great plain Sahl ‘ArrHbeh; surrounded on three sides by hills (2 Kings 6:17). Clearly a place suitable for defence, it must have been of importance when the neighbouring high-road, still much used, was a main thoroughfare from Damascus to Egypt. The situation is, too, a choice one on account of its abundant fountain, now used to work a mill and irrigate fruit gardens; two ancient wells and a number of empty cisterns (Genesis 37:24) are also found near the foot of the tell. Great herds of cattle, sheep, and goats from the neighbouring abundant pastures, may always be found gathered there in the afternoon drinldng from the water and browsing in the shade. Although there are no ancient remains on the surface, traces of walls may be seen all around the hill top. E. W. G. Masterman.

Doubt

Doubt (from Lat. duMtare, ‘to hold two (opinions),’ ‘hesitate’). — 1. In AV ‘doubt’ (vb. and noun) six times renders a Gr. vb. meaning ‘to be at a loss’ or ‘quite at a loss’; in all these instances except John 13:22 RV substitutes ‘perplexity,’ following the AV rendering of Luke 9:7 24:4. 2 Corinthians 4:8. In this sense ‘doubt’ is now nearly obsolete; as it is in the meaning riddle, knotty question, which it bears in Du 5:12, 16. Not dissimilar is its use in the AV of John 10:24 (‘make us to doubt’), where RV, more literally, reads ‘hold us in suspense.’ Quite archaic also is the use of ‘doubt’ for ‘suspect,’ instanced in Sirach 6:13 (AV). 2. Elsewhere ‘doubt’ has a religious signification, standing in express or tacit antithesis to ‘faith’ (wh. see), (a) In Matthew 21:21, Mark 11:23. Acts 10:20 11:12. Romans 14:23. ja Id (RV), Jude (RV), it stands for a vb. signifying ‘to be divided in mind (judgment)’ — the same Gr. word is rendered ‘staggered’ in AV, ‘wavered’ in RV, of Romans 4:20; (6) in Matthew 14:31 28:17 ‘to be of two opinions,’ ‘to waver,’ is the force of the original: the vb. above indicates (1) more subjectively, (2) more objectively, a state of qualified faith, of faith mixed with misgiving, something between whole-hearted faith and decided unbelief. Thus wavering, faith is robbed of its power; hence such hesitation, in regard to Christ and the promises and commands of God, is strongly deprecated and reproved. In the above examples the doubt, affecting the mind of a believer, arises from contradictory circumstances or conscientious scruples; unless this be the case in Matthew 28:17 (cf. Luke 24:38. noticed below), it has none of the quality of rationalistic doubt or scepticism, (c) Akin to the above is the expression of Luke 12:29. where ‘of doubtful mind’ ( AV, RV) is the rendering of an obscure Gr. word that seems to mean iein^ lifted into the air, and so agitated, held in suspense or driven by gusts (cf. Ephesians 4:14. James 1:4–6). (d) Another group of expressions remains: Romans 14:1 ‘doubtful disputations’(AV),’ decisions of doubts’ (RVm); 1 Timothy 2:8 ‘disputing’ (RV) or ‘doubting’ (AV) = ‘reasoning’ (Luke 24:38 RV); ‘disputings’ (Philippians 2:14). In these passages arguing, questioning is intended, and (in Ro.) matter of argument, debatable questions. This usage Jies on the border between 1 and 2; for the questions referred to, except in Luke 24:38. did not directly belong to faith, but their agitation disturbed and tended to weaken it.

G. G. FiNDLAY.

Dove

The words translated ‘dove’ apply equally to doves and pigeons. In Palestine seven varieties of the Columbas are found. The most noticeable are: the ‘wood pigeons or ring-doves (Columba palumbus), which fly in great flocks all over the land; the turtle-dove (Turtur communis), a harbinger of spring, arriving in the land in April (Jeremiah 8:7, Song of Songs 2:12) and the palm turtle-dove(Turtur senegalensis), which is common in a semidomesticated state in the streets and courts of Jerusalem.’ Dove’ is a favourite name of affection (Song of Songs 1:15 4:1 6:2, 12 6:9), and to-day it is one of the commonest names given to girls by Eastern Jewish parents. It is typical of harmlessness (Matthew 10:16). helplessness (Psalms 74:19). and innocence. The last quality doubtless makes it typical of the Holy Spirit (Matthew 3:16 etc.). Doves were used in sacrifice (Leviticus 5:7 12:6 etc.), and have been kept as pets for long ages. E. W. G. Masterman.

Doves' Dung

‘A fourth part of a cab’ of this material was sold at a high price in Samaria during the siege (2 Kings 6:25). The words hart ySnlm, as they stand, are plain, and no suggested alternative has cleared up the difficulty. It is an example of the actual extremity of the siege comparable with the threats of the approaching siege of 2 Kings 18:27. Whether, as Josephus suggests, the dung was a source of salt, or was used as medicine or as food, it is impossible to say.

E. W. G. Mastehman.

Dowry

See Marhiage.

Drachm

See Iram; Monet, §§ 4, 7.

Dragon

(1) tannlm (pi.), AV ‘dragons,’ but RV ‘jackals,’ Isaiah 3:22 34 35:7, Job 30:29, Psalms 44:19, Jeremiah 10:22 49:33. (2) tannSth, AV ‘dragons.’ but RV ‘jackals,’ Mai l’. See Jackal. (3) tannim (sing.), ‘dragon,’ Ezekiel 29:3 32:2, refers to Egypt, and probably means specially the crocodile (wh. see). (4) tannin (pi. tannlnim), tr. in RV of Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 ‘sea monsteT(s)’ ( AV ‘whale(s)’) ; Aaron’s rod became a tannin(Ex7’-", EV serpent [wh. see, §11]). The same term, tannin, is also applied metaphorically to Pharaoh (Ps 74. Isaiah 51:9; and thus perhaps refers to the crocodile), and to Nebuchadnezzar (Jeremiah 51:34). Doubtless many references here and elsewhere ^.re tinged by current mythological tales of ‘dragons,’ such as that preserved in the Assyrian creation-epic of the contest between Marduk and Tiamat. The reference in Revelation 12:3 ff. is certainly of this nature. E. W. G. Masterman.

DRAM, from the Gr. drachma, is used in AV to render two words which RV, with questionable accuracy, has rendered ‘darics’ (see more fully under Monet, § 4). The ‘ten pieces of silver’ of Luke 15:8 f.: however, were real drachmas, as marg. of AV and RV, for which see Monet, § 7.

DRAUGHT (Matthew 15:17, Mark 7:19) and DRAUGHT HOUSE (Amer. RV ‘draught-house,’ 2 Kings 10:27) both signify a privy or closet, which in the Mishna is ‘water-house.’ Jehu, according to the last-cited passage, turned the temple of Baal in Samaria into public latrines.

Dreams

Sleep impressed primitive savages as a great mystery; and they consequently attributed a peculiar significance to the dreams of sleepers, as phenomena which they could not control by their will or explain by their reason. In the lowest stage of culture all dreams were regarded as objectively real experiences; the god or spirit actually visited the dreamer, the events dreamed actually occurred. Hence any one who was subject to frequent dreaming was looked on as a special medium of Divine energy, and many sought to produce the state by artificial means, e.g. fasting or the use of drugs. In process of time dreams came to be treated rather as Divine warnings than as actual occurrences. Such admonitions could be deliberately sought, e.g. by sleeping in a sacred spot, such as the temples of Asklepios or Serapis or the grotto of Trophonius; or they could come unsought, when the gods wished either to reveal or to deceive. (Plato, however, while allowing that the gods may send dreams, denies that they can wish to deceive men). Thus, for instance, among the Babylonians, the Assyrians, the Arabs, the Egyptians, a profound importance was attached to dreams ; there were professional interpreters of them (cf. Genesis 40:5, 8 41:1, Daniel 2:5). and manuals were compiled to aid the work of elucidation (cf. the Oneirocritica of Artemidorus of Ephesus). Wiser theorists might discriminate between dreams, but popular superstition tended to regard them all as omens, to be explained, as far as possible, in accordance with definite rules.

1. Among the Jews. — In both Testaments we find significance attached to dreams (Genesis 37:6, 9 41:25. Judges 7:13. Daniel 2:28 T"-, Matthew 1:20 2:13, 20. Acts 23:11 27:23). and in OT times it seems that a great deal of vulgar superstition existed with regard to such phenomena; similarly necromancy and sorcery, though discouraged by the higher thought of the nation (cf. Deuteronomy 18:10, 11). , were undoubtedly practised. We find hardly any traces, however, of dreams being regularly sought; 1 Samuel 28:15 may be one; and in 28:12–19 and 1 Kings 3:5 it is possible to suppose a reference to the practice of sleeping in a sacred locality in order to receive a Divine communication. On the whole, the general trend of OT teaching is as follows : — Dreams may in some cases be genuine communications from God (Job 33:15. Jeremiah 23:28). and as such are reverenced (Genesis 20:3 31:10 ff.), though Numbers 12:6–8 treats them as an inferior medium; but there are false dreams and ijdng dreamers, against whom precautions are necessary; and the idea that habitual dreaming is a certain sign of Divine inspiration is stoutly combated (cf. Jeremiah 23:25, 32 27:9 29:8. Zechariah 10:2. Ecclesiastes 5:7). and it is definitely recognized that the interpretation of dreams belongs to God, and is not a matter of human codification(cf. Genesis 40:8).

2. General. — The consideration of dreams is partly a subject for the sciences which treat of the general relations between body and spirit, and partly a matter of common sense. It seems clear that dreams are connected with physical states, and that their psychological origin lies mainly in the region beneath the ‘threshold of consciousness.’ But all dreams and all waking states are states of consciousness, whether it be partial or complete, and as such are subject to law; if any are to be regarded as ‘supernatural,’ it must be owing not to their methods but to their messages. Some dreams convey no message, and can be explained as valuable only by a resort to superstition. Others may be real revelations, and as such Divine; in abnormal cases the power of spiritual perception may be intensified and heightened in the dream-state, and thus an insight into Divine truth may be obtained which had been denied to the waking consciousness. Similarly Condorcet is said to have solved in a dream a mathematical problem which had baSled his waking powers, and Coleridge to have dreamt the poem of Kubla Khan. But under any circumstances the interpretation of a dream ‘belongs to God’; the question whether its message is a Divine communication or not must ultimately be answered by an appeal to the religious consciousness, or in other words to the higher reason. The awakened intelligence must be called in to criticise and appraise the deliverances received in dreams, and its verdict must decide what measure of attention is to be paid to them. Dreams, in short, may be the source of suggestions, but scarcely of authoritative directions. A. W. F. Blunt.