Crook-Backed – Cun

Crook-Backed

krook'-bakt (gibben; kurtos): A disqualification for the priesthood (Leviticus 21:20); was probably an angular curvature of the spine, usually the result of tubercular caries of the vertebrae. It was by no means uncommon in ancient Egypt, where I have found a considerable number of spines affected with this disease. Some Talmudic authorities explain it as meaning "very dark colored," but this is unlikely.

The woman bound by the spirit of infirmity and unable to lift herself (Luke 13:11–17) was affected with senile kyphosis, a chronic bone disease often found among aged men (and more frequently women) whose lives have been spent in agricultural labor. In these the vertebrae become altered in shape so that it is impossible to straighten the back. Some rabbinical authorities believed all deformities to be due to Satan, and to this our Lord seems to have alluded in his rebuke to those who caviled at His healing on the Sabbath. I have found this condition in some Egyptian skeletons, and have seen it in a Palestinian fellah. A skeleton affected with a similar curvature was found buried under the threshold of a house at Gezer, where she had evidently been offered as a foundation sacrifice.

Alex. Macalister

Crooked

krook'-ed (`awah, `aqash, `aqalqal, `aqallathon, pethaltol; skolios): Primarily designates something that is bent, twisted or deformed (Isaiah 27:1; Isaiah 45:2 the King James Version).

Figurative:

(1) It designates a course of action that deviates from rectitude, especially deceit, guile, hypocrisy (Deuteronomy 32:5; Proverbs 2:15; Ecclesiastes 1:15; Luke 3:5; compare Philippians 2:15);

(2) trials (sent by God, Ecclesiastes 7:13; Lamentations 3:9);

(3) difficulties (removed by God, Isaiah 42:16).

Crooked Serpent

krook'-ed sur'-pent.

See ASTRONOMY.

Crop

(1) As noun the translation of mur'-ah (Leviticus 1:16), which is the craw of a bird, especially of doves and pigeons, which had to be removed by the priest before he offered the birds as a burnt sacrifice.

(2) As a verb it is (Ezekiel 17:4,Ezekiel 17:22) the translation of qaTaph, which has the meaning of "cutting off," "cutting down," "plucking."

Cross

(stauros, "a cross," "the crucifixion"; skolops, "a stake," "a pole"): The name is not found in the Old Testament. It is derived from the Latin word crux. In the Greek language it is stauros, but sometimes we find the word skolops used as its Greek equivalent. The historical writers, who transferred the events of Roman history into the Greek language, make use of these two words. No word in human language has become more universally known than this word, and that because all of the history of the world since the death of Christ has been measured by the distance which separates events from it. The symbol and principal content of the Christian religion and of Christian civilization is found in this one word.

1. Forms of the Cross:

The cross occurs in at least four different forms:

(1) the form usually seen in pictures, the crux immissa, in which the upright beam projected above the shorter crosspiece; this is most likely the type of cross on which the Saviour died, as may be inferred from the inscription which was nailed above His head;

(2) the crux commissa, or Anthony's cross, which has the shape of the letter T;

(3) the Greek cross of later date, in which the pieces are equally long;

(4) the crux decussata, or Andrew's cross, which has the shape of the letter X.

2. Discovery of the True Cross:

The early church historians Socrates (1, 17), Sozomen (2, 1), Rufinus (1, 7) and Theodoret (1, 18) all make mention of this tradition. The most significant thing is that Eusebius (Vit. Const., iii.26-28), who carries more weight than they all together, wholly omits it.

According to it, Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, in 325 AD, when she was 79 years old, discovered the true cross of Jesus by an excavation she caused to be made on the traditional spot of His grave. With the cross of the Saviour were found the two crosses of the malefactors who were crucified with Him. A miracle of healing, wrought by touching the true cross, revealed its identity. Whenfound it was intact, even the holy nails of the crucifixion being discovered. The main part of the cross was deposited by Helena in a church erected over the spot. Of the remainder, a portion was inserted into the head of the statue of Constantine, and the balance was placed in a new church, specially erected for it at Rome and named after it Santa Croce. Small fragments of the wood of the true cross were sold, encrusted with gold and jewels, and since many among the wealthy believers were desirous of possessing such priceless relics, the miracle of the "multiplication of the cross" was devised, so that the relic suffered no diminution "et quasi intacta maneret" (Paulinus epistle 11 ad Sev). Fragments of the true cross are thus to be found in many Roman Catholic churches of many countries, all over Christendom. It is said that the East celebrated the staurosimos hemera (Crucifixion Day) on September 14, since the 4th century. The evidence for this fact is late and untrustworthy. It is certain that the West celebrated the Invention of the Cross, on May 3, since the time of Gregory the Great in the 6th century. The finding and publication of the apocryphal "Doctrina Addaei" has made it evident that the entire legend of the discovery of the cross by Helena is but a version of the old Edessa legend, which tells of an identical discovery of the cross, under the very same circumstances, by the wife of the emperor Claudius, who had been converted to Christianity by the preaching of Peter.

3. Symbolical Uses of the Cross:

(1) Extra-Scriptural.

The sign of the cross was well known in the symbolics of various ancient nations. Among the Egyptians it is said to have been the symbol of divinity and eternal life, and to have been found in the temple of Serapis. It is known either in the form of the Greek cross or in the form of the letter "T". The Spaniards found it to be well known, as a symbol, by the Mexicans and Peruvians, perhaps signifying the four elements, or the four seasons, or the four points of the compass.

(2) Scriptural.

The suffering implied in crucifixion naturally made the cross a symbol of pain, distress and burden-bearing. Thus Jesus used it Himself (Matthew 10:38; Matthew 16:24). In Paulinic literature the cross stands for the preaching of the doctrine of the Atonement (1 Corinthians 1:18; Galatians 6:14; Philippians 3:18; Colossians 1:20). It expresses the bond of unity between the Jew and the Gentile (Ephesians 2:16), and between the believer and Christ, and also symbolizes sanctification (Galatians 5:24). The cross is the center and circumference of the preaching of the apostles and of the life of the New Testament church.

4. Crucifixion:

As an instrument of death the cross was detested by the Jews. "Cursed is everyone that hangeth on a tree" (Galatians 3:13; compare Deuteronomy 21:23), hence, it became a stumbling-block to them, for how could one accursed of God be their Messiah? Nor was the cross differently considered by the Romans. "Let the very name of the cross be far away not only from the body of a Roman citizen, but even from his thoughts, his eyes, his ears" (Cicero Pro Rabirio 5). The earliest mode of crucifixion seems to have been by impalation, the transfixion of the body lengthwise and crosswise by sharpened stakes, a mode of death-punishment still well known among the Mongol race. The usual mode of crucifixion was familiar to the Greeks, the Romans, the Egyptians, Persians and Babylonians (Thuc. 1, 110; Herod. iii.125, 159). Alexander the Great executed two thousand Tyrian captives in this way, after the fall of the city. The Jews received this form of punishment from the Syrians and Romans (Ant., XII, v, 4; XX, vi, 2; BJ, I, iv, 6). The Roman citizen was exempt from this form of death, it being considered the death of a slave (Cicero In Verrem i. 5, 66; Quint. viii.4). The punishment was meted out for such crimes as treason, desertion in the face of the enemy, robbery, piracy, assassination, sedition, etc. It continued in vogue in the Roman empire till the day of Constantine, when it was abolished as an insult to Christianity. Among the Romans crucifixion was preceded by scourging, undoubtedly to hasten impending death. The victim then bore his own cross, or at least the upright beam, to the place of execution. This in itself proves that the structure was less ponderous than is commonly supposed. When he was tied to the cross nothing further was done and he was left to die from starvation. If he was nailed to the cross, at least in Judea, a stupefying drink was given him to deaden the agony. The number of nails used seems to have been indeterminate. A tablet, on which the feet rested or on which the body was partly supported, seems to have been a part of the cross to keep the wounds from tearing through the transfixed members (Iren., Adv. haer., ii.42). The suffering of death by crucifixion was intense, especially in hot climates. Severe local inflammation, coupled with an insignificant bleeding of the jagged wounds, produced traumatic fever, which was aggravated the exposure to the heat of the sun, the strained of the body and insufferable thirst. The swelled about the rough nails and the torn lacerated tendons and nerves caused excruciating agony. The arteries of the head and stomach were surcharged with blood and a terrific throbbing headache ensued. The mind was confused and filled with anxiety and dread foreboding. The victim of crucifixion literally died a thousand deaths. Tetanus not rarely supervened and the rigors of the attending convulsions would tear at the wounds and add to the burden of pain, till at last the bodily forces were exhausted and the victim sank to unconsciousness and death. The sufferings were so frightful that "even among the raging passions of war pity was sometimes excited" (BJ, V, xi, 1). The length of this agony was wholly determined by the constitution of the victim, but death rarely ensued before thirty-six hours had elapsed. Instances are on record of victims of the cross who survived their terrible injuries when taken down from the cross after many hours of suspension (Josephus, Vita, 75). Death was sometimes hastened by breaking the legs of the victims and by a hard blow delivered under the armpit before crucifixion. Crura fracta was a well-known Roman term (Cicero Phil. xiii.12). The sudden death of Christ evidently was a matter of astonishment (Mark 15:44). The peculiar symptoms mentioned by John (19:34) would seem to point to a rupture of the heart, of which the Saviour died, independent of the cross itself, or perhaps hastened by its agony.

See BLOOD AND WATER.

Henry E. Dosker

Crossway

kros'-wa (perek, literally, "division"): A forking or dividing of the way. Obadiah warns Edom, "And stand thou not in the crossway, to cut off those of his that escape" (Obadiah 1:14). In Septuagint, "a mountain pass."

Crown

kroun: The word crown in the Old Testament is a translation of five different Hebrew words, and in the New Testament of two Greek words. These express the several meanings, and must be examined to ascertain the same.

1. In Hebrew:

The five Hebrew words are as follows:

(1) qodhqodh, from qadhadh;

(2) zer, from zarar;

(3) nezer, or nezer, both from nazar;

(4) aTarah, from `atar;

(5) kether, from kathar.

(1) Qodhqodh means "the crown of the head," and is also rendered in the King James Version "top of the head," "scalp," "pate." It comes from qadhadh, meaning "to shrivel up," "contract," or bend the body or neck through courtesy. Both the Revised Version (British and American) and the American Standard Revised Version, in Deuteronomy 28:35 and 33:16, translation it "crown" instead of "top" as in the King James Version. Jacob in his prophecy concerning his sons says: "The blessings of thy father .... shall be on the head of Joseph, and on the crown of the head of him that is prince among his brethren" (Genesis 49:26 the American Revised Version, margin). Other references are: Deuteronomy 33:20; 2 Samuel 14:25; Job 2:7; Isaiah 3:17; Jeremiah 2:16; Jeremiah 48:45. Translated "scalp" in Psalms 68:21 and "pate" in Psalms 7:16.

(2) Zer means a "chaplet," something spread around the top as a molding about the border, and because of its wreath-like appearance called a crown. "That which presses, binds" (BDB). Comes from zarar, meaning "to diffuse" or "scatter." It is used in Exodus 25:11,Exodus 25:24,Exodus 25:25; Exodus 30:3,Exodus 30:1; Exodus 37:2,Exodus 37:11,Exodus 37:12,Exodus 37:26,Exodus 37:27.

(3) Nezer means something "set apart"; i.e. a dedication to the priesthood or the dedication of a Nazarite, hence, a chaplet or fillet as a symbol of such consecration. The word in the King James Version is rendered "crown," "consecration," "separation," "hair." Comes from nazar, meaning "to hold aloof" from impurity, even from drink and food, more definitely, "to set apart" for sacred purposes, i.e. "to separate," "devote," "consecrate." It is found in Exodus 29:6; Exodus 39:30; Leviticus 8:9; Leviticus 21:12; 2 Samuel 1:10; 2 Kings 11:12; 2 Chronicles 23:11; Psalms 89:39; Psalms 132:18; Proverbs 27:24; Zechariah 9:16.

(4) `ATarah means a crown in the usual sense. Comes from `aTar, meaning "to encircle," as in war for offense or defense; also actually and figuratively "to crown." Rendered sometimes "to compass." It is used in 2 Samuel 12:30; 1 Chronicles 20:2; Esther 8:15; Job 19:9; Job 31:36; Psalms 21:3; Proverbs 4:9; Proverbs 12:4; Proverbs 14:24; Proverbs 16:31; Proverbs 17:6; Song of Songs 3:11; Isaiah 28:1,Isaiah 28:3,Isaiah 28:1; Isaiah 62:3; Jeremiah 13:18; Lamentations 5:16; Ezekiel 16:12; Ezekiel 21:26; Ezekiel 23:42; Zechariah 6:11,Zechariah 6:14; "crowned," Song of Songs 3:11; "crownest," Psalms 65:11; "crowneth," Psalms 103:4. the Revised Version (British and American) translations "crowned," of Psalms 8:5 "hast crowned." the American Standard Revised Version prefers to translation "crowning," in Isaiah 23:8, "the bestower of crowns."

(5) Kether means a "circlet" or "a diadem." From kathar, meaning "to enclose": as a friend, "to crown"; as an enemy, "to besiege." Variously translated "beset round," "inclose round," "suffer," "compass about." Found in Esther 1:11; Esther 2:17, Esther 6:8; "crowned," in Proverbs 14:18.

2. In Greek:

The two Greek words of the New Testament translated crown are:

(1) stephanos, from stepho, and

(2) diadema, from diadeo, "to bind round."

(1) Stephanos means a chaplet (wreath) made of leaves or leaf-like gold, used for marriage and festive occasions, and expressing public recognition of victory in races, games and war; also figuratively as a reward for efficient Christian life and service (see GAMES). This symbol was more noticeable and intricate than the plain fillet. Only in the Re of John is stephanos called "golden." The "crown of thorns" which Jesus wore was a stephanos (woven wreath) of thorns; the kind is not known (Matthew 27:29; Mark 15:17; John 19:2,John 19:5). Luke makes no mention of it. Whether intended to represent royalty or victory, it was caricature crown. Stephanos is found in 1 Corinthians 9:25; Philippians 4:1; 1 Thessalonians 2:19; 2 Timothy 4:8; James 1:12; 1 Peter 5:4; Revelation 2:10; Revelation 3:11; Revelation 6:2; Revelation 12:1; Revelation 14:14; plural in Revelation 4:4,Revelation 4:10; Revelation 9:7; "crowned" in 2 Timothy 2:5; Hebrews 2:9; "crownedst" in Hebrews 2:7.

(2) Diadema is the word for "diadem," from dia (about) and deo (bound), i.e. something bound about the head. In the three places where it occurs (Revelation 12:3; Revelation 13:1; Revelation 19:12) both the Revised Version (British and American) and the American Standard Revised Version translation it not "crowns" but "diadems," thus making the proper distinction between stephanos and diadema, such as is not done either in the King James Version or the Septuagint (see Trench, Synonyms of the New Testament). According to Thayer the distinction was not observed in Hellenic Greek "Diadems" are on the dragon (Revelation 12:3), the beast (Revelation 13:1) and on the Rider of the White Horse, "the Faithful and True" (Revelation 19:12). In each case the "diadems" are symbolic of power to rule.

3. Use and Significance:

There are five uses of the crown as seen in the Scripture references studied, namely, decoration, consecration, coronation, exaltation, and remuneration. (1) Decoration.

The zer of Ex, as far as it was a crown at all, was for ornamentation, its position not seeming to indicate any utility purpose. These wavelet, gold moldings, used in the furnishings of the tabernacle of Moses, were placed about

(a) the table of shewbread (Exodus 25:24; Exodus 37:11);

(b) the ark of the covenant (Exodus 25:11; Exodus 37:2);

(c) the altar of incense (Exodus 30:3,Exodus 30:1; Exodus 37:26,Exodus 37:27). The position of these crowns is a debated question among archaeologists. Their purpose other than decoration is not known. The encircling gold might signify gratitude, parity and enduring worth.

(2) Consecration.

The nezer had a twofold use as the crown of consecration:

(a) It was placed as a frontlet on the miter of the high priest, being tied with a blue lace (Exodus 39:30). The priestly crown was a flat piece of pure gold, bearing the inscription, "Holy to Yahweh," signifying the consecration of the priest as the representative of the people (Exodus 29:6; Leviticus 8:9).

(b) Likewise the Hebrew king (2 Kings 11:12) was set apart by God in wearing on his head a royal nezer, whether of silk or gold we do not know. It was set with jewels (Zechariah 9:16) and was light enough to be taken into battle (2 Samuel 1:10).

(3) Coronation.

The ordinary use of the crown. There were three kinds of kingly crowns used in coronation services:

(a) The nezer or consecration crown, above referred to, was the only one used in crowning Hebrew kings. What seems to be an exception is in the case of Joshua, who represented both priest and king (Zechariah 6:11 the American Revised Version, margin).

(b) The `aTarah, and

(c) the kether were used in crowning foreign monarchs.

No king but a Hebrew could wear a nezer--a "Holy to Yahweh" crown. It is recorded that David presumed to put on his own head the `atarah of King Malcam (2 Samuel 12:30 the American Revised Version, margin). The kether or jeweled turban was the crown of the Persian king and queen (Esther 1:11; Esther 2:17; Esther 6:8).

(4) Exaltation.

The `atarah, the stephanos and the diadema were used as crowns of exaltation. Stephanos was the usual crown of exaltation for victors of games, achievement in war and places of honor at feasts. The `atarah was worn at banquets (Song of Songs 3:11; Isaiah 28:1,Isaiah 28:3), probably taking the form of a wreath of flowers; also as a crown of honor and victory (Ezekiel 16:12; Ezekiel 21:26; Ezekiel 23:42). Stephanos is the crown of exaltation bestowed upon Christ (Revelation 6:2; Revelation 14:14; Hebrews 2:9). "Exaltation was the logical result of Christ's humiliation" (Vincent). The Apocalyptic woman and locusts receive this emblem of exaltation (Revelation 12:1; Revelation 9:7). The symbolic dragon and beast are elevated, wearing diadema, (Revelation 12:3; Revelation 13:1). The conquering Christ has "upon his head .... many diadems" (Revelation 19:12). See further Tertullian, De corona.

(5) Remuneration.

Paul, witnessing the races and games, caught the vision of wreath-crowned victors flush with the reward of earnest endeavor. See GAMES. He also saw the persistent, faithful Christian at the end of his hard-won race wearing the symbolic stephanos of rejoicing (1 Thessalonians 2:19 the King James Version), of righteousness (2 Timothy 4:8), of glory (1 Peter 5:4), of life (James 1:12; Revelation 2:10). Paul's fellow Christians were his joy and stephanos (Philippians 4:1), "of which Paul might justly make his boast" (Ellicott). Long before Paul, his Hebrew ancestors saw the `aTarah of glory (Proverbs 4:9) and the `aTarah of a good wife, children's children, riches and a peaceful old age (Proverbs 12:4; Proverbs 14:24; Proverbs 16:31; Proverbs 17:6). For Apocrypha references see 1 Macc 10:29; 11:35; 13:39.

William Edward Raffety

Crown Of Thorns

thornz (akdnthinos stephanos): Three of the four evangelists mention the crown of thorns, wherewith the rude Roman soldiers derided the captive Christ (Matthew 27:29; Mark 15:17; John 19:2). All speak of the akanthine (Acanthus) crown, but there is no certainty about the peculiar plant, from the branches of which this crown of cruel mockery was plaited. The rabbinical books. mention no less than twenty-two words in the Bible signifying thorny plants, and the word akantha in the New Testament Greek is a generic and not a specific term. And this word or its adjective is used in the three Gospels, quoted above. It is therefore impossible definitely to determine what was the exact plant or tree, whose thorny branches were selected for this purpose. Tobler (Denkbl., 113, 179) inclines to the Spina Christi, as did Hasselquist. Its botanical name is Zizyphus Spina Christi, It is very common in the East. Its spines are small and sharp, its branches soft, round and pliable, and the leaves look like ivy, with a dark, shiny green color, making them therefore very adaptable to the purpose of the soldiers. Others have designated the Paliurus aculeatus or the Lycium horridum. Both Geikie (Life of Christ, 549) and Farrar (Life of Christ, note 625) point to the Nubk (Zizyphus lotus). Says the latter, "The Nubk struck me, as it has all travelers in Palestine, as being most suitable both for mockery and pain, since its leaves are bright and its thorns singularly strong. But though the Nubk is very common on the shores of Galilee, I saw none of it near Jerusalem." The settlement of the question is manifestly impossible.

Henry E. Dosker

Crucifixion

kroo-si-fik'-shun.

See CROSS; PUNISHMENTS.

Cruel; Cruelty

kroo'-el, kroo'-el-ti 'akhzar, ("harsh," "fierce," chamac, "violence"): There are various uses of the word "cruel" in the Old Testament:

(a) "the cruel (deadly) venom of asps" (Deuteronomy 32:33);

(b) spoken of men of relentless hate: "They hate me with cruel hatred" (Psalms 25:19; compare Proverbs 5:9; Proverbs 11:17; Proverbs 12:10; Jeremiah 6:23; Jeremiah 50:42);

(c) Job speaks of God's dealings with him as "cruel" and arbitrary: "Thou art turned to be cruel to me" (Job 30:21); conscious of his virtue, yet holding God to be the author of his sufferings, Job is driven to the conclusion that God has become his enemy and is bent upon destroying him;

(d) the "day of Yahweh"--a prophetic phrase to denote the time of God's manifestation in judgment--is described as coming, "cruel, with wrath and fierce anger" (Isaiah 13:9). The word "cruelty" has nearly disappeared from the Bible. In the Revised Version (British and American) it occurs only in Psalms 27:12. The King James Version has it in Genesis 49:5; Psalms 74:20 (the Revised Version (British and American) "violence"); Ezekiel 34:4 (perekh, "crushing," the Revised Version (British and American) "rigor").

The Old Testament records many acts on the part of chosen individuals and the elect nation which are marked by gross cruelty, particularly when measured by the leaders are standards of our own age. Some of these acts are sanctioned by Scripture or even presented as commanded by God, as, for example, the sacrifice of Isaac, the extermination of the Canaanites, the authorization of the avenger of blood and of human slavery, and of retaliation for evil. Some of the deeds performed by Divinely appointed of Israel are characterized by inhumanity. Samuel "hewed Agag in pieces" (1 Samuel 15:33). David massacred the Ammonites with great barbarity (2 Samuel 12:31). Elijah slew the prophets of Baal (1 Kings 18:40; compare 2 Kings 1:10; 2 Kings 10:25). Some of the utterances of the Psalmists breathe spirit of hate and revenge, as in the so-called imprecatory psalms (Psalms 137:8,Psalms 137:9; Psalms 139:21 f). This has often been a matter of great perplexity to the devout student of the Bible. He has found it difficult to reconcile such practices, which bear the stamp of Divine approval, with the highest standards of Christian morality. It is sometimes urged in justification that these deeds are permitted, but not commanded by God. But this answer if we recognize the fact, which Jesus emphasizes, that the in attendant cruelties and horrors. The Old Testament religion is a self-accommodation to the low moral standard of those whom it was designed to instruct. This He reiterates in the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5:22,Matthew 5:28,Matthew 5:34), and affirms in His reference to the hardness of the ancestral Jewish heart (Matthew 19:8). In the Old Testament we are dealing with the childhood of the world, in which revelation is compelled to limit itself to the comprehension of its subjects. It must speak so that they can understand. It must start with them where it finds them. It walk, that character may grow step by step. A gradual development of spiritual and ethical ideals may clearly be traced in the sacred records. We must therefore read the Old Testament narratives and interpret their teaching, not according to the standards of our own age, but the light of the age to which these narratives belong. The spirit of Elijah may not be the spirit of Christ (Luke 9:55). While many of the acts of cruelty and barbarity recorded in the Old Testament are indicative of an age of a low type of morality, yet we must at the same time recognize the fact, that Israel's religion by emphasizing holy living and righteous conduct created an atmosphere favorable for the growth of high ethical ideals. Wherever this religion is seen at its best, as in the teachings of the prophets, it is the mark of the righteous man to treat human life as sacred and to refrain scrupulously from inflicting unnecessary pain. Even the Gentiles shall be brought to judgment for their barbarities and inhuman practices (Amos 1:2 2 Kings 25:7). Among the blessings of the Messianic kingdom, predicted by the prophets, is the cessation of war with all of its Law of Israel also reflected this tendency toward humanity, and many of its ordinances, while seemingly inhuman, really tended to mitigate prevailing barbarity. Instances of such ordinances those referring to the maltreatment of slaves (Exodus 21:20), to the Cities of Refuge (Numbers 35:19 ff; compare Joshua 20:1–9), to rules of warfare (Deuteronomy 20:10 f), etc. The extermination of the Canaanites is represented as a Divine judgment upon a morally corrupt civilization (Genesis 15:16; Deuteronomy 12:30). It is declared necessary in order to guard the Hebrews from contamination by the sins of the Canaanites (Exodus 23:32). It is not so far back, that many of the practices that are condemned by the most enlightened Christianity of our day, prevailed universally and were not thought incompatible with Christian civilization. Even our own time needs to secure a more widespread practical recognition of the principles of humanity, kindness and justice, which are professedly the law of the Christian life. L. Kaiser must lead them along lines in which they of their own volition can hardly meets the facts of the case. We shall arrive at a truer answer

Crumb

krum (psichion, "a little bit"): Occurs only in the New Testament, of remnants of food, scraps. Lazarus desired "to be fed with the crumbs that fell from the rich man's table" (Luke 16:21). "Even the (little) dogs eat of the crumbs" (Matthew 15:27; Mark 7:28), "possibly the fragments of bread on which the guests wiped their hands (after thrusting them into the common dish), and flung to the dogs" (Farrar, Life of Christ, I, 476).

Cruse

kroos: A small earthen vessel or flask, usually for holding liquids: tsappachath; as water, 1 Samuel 26:11,1 Samuel 26:12,1 Samuel 26:16; 1 Kings 19:6; it being porous, the liquid is kept cool; also for holding oil, as in 1Ki l7:12,14,16.

In 1 Kings 14:3 ("a cruse of honey") the word baqbuq, would be better rendered "bottle," doubtless deriving its name from the gurgling sound of issuing liquids. In 2 Kings 2:20 tselochith, is not a jar or flask, but a dish, or platter, for salt or other substances.

In the New Testament a small jar or vial, alabastron, "alabaster cruse" or flask, for holding ointment; not "box" as in the King James Version (Matthew 26:7; Mark 14:3; Luke 7:37; compare 1 Samuel 10:1; 2 Kings 9:1,2 Kings 9:3, where "box" in the King James Version is used for "vial" the Revised Version (British and American)).

Edward Bagby Pollard

Cry, Crying

kri'-ing (zaaq, tsa`aq (and forms), qara', shawa`, rinnah; boao, krazo, phoneo):

Various words are translated "cry," "crying," etc., the chief of which are those above given; za'aq and tsa`aq denote especially a cry for help, from pain or distress, and are frequently used for crying to God, e.g. (za`aq, Exodus 2:23; Judges 3:9,Revelation 2:15; Psalms 22:5; Psalms 107:13,Psalms 107:19; Micah 3:4); (tsa`aq, Exodus 8:12; Exodus 15:25; Psalms 34:17; Psalms 77:1; Isaiah 19:20; Lamentations 2:18); qara' (a mimetic word) has the widest signification, but is often used of appealing to God (frequently translated "call," "called," etc., Genesis 39:14,Genesis 39:15,Genesis 39:18; Genesis 41:43; Deuteronomy 15:9; Deuteronomy 24:15; 1 Kings 18:27; Psalms 3:4; Psalms 22:2; Psalms 27:7; Proverbs 1:21; Isaiah 34:14; Jeremiah 2:2, etc.); shawa`, "to cry aloud" (Job 29:12; Job 30:20,Job 30:28; Psalms 18:6,Psalms 18:41; Psalms 88:13; Jonah 2:2; Habakkuk 1:2, etc.); rinnah, "a shouting," whether for joy or grief (1 Kings 8:28; Psalms 17:1; Psalms 61:1; Psalms 88:2; Psalms 119:169; Psalms 142:6; Isaiah 43:14 the Revised Version (British and American) "rejoicing," etc.). Other Hebrew words are 'anaq, "to groan" (Ezekiel 9:4; Ezekiel 24:17 the King James Version; Ezekiel 26:15 the King James Version); hamah, "to make a noise" (Psalms 55:17 the King James Version); rua`, "to shout" (Judges 7:21 the King James Version; Job 30:5; Isaiah 42:13, etc.); ranan, "to cry aloud" (Psalms 84:2; Lamentations 2:19); shoa`, "crying" (Isaiah 22:5); teshu'oth, "crying," "noise" (Job 39:7 the King James Version).

In the New Testament we have boao, "to cry," "shout" (Matthew 3:3; Mark 1:3; Mark 15:34; Galatians 4:27, etc.); krazo (mimetic, the hoarse cry of the raven), "to cry out" (Matthew 9:27; Matthew 14:30; Matthew 21:9; Matthew 27:50; Mark 5:5; Galatians 4:6; Revelation 6:10; Revelation 7:2, etc.); phoneo, "to give forth the voice," "sound" (Luke 8:8; Luke 16:24; Luke 23:46; Acts 16:28; Revelation 14:18 the King James Version); anaboao, "to cry out" (Matthew 27:46; Luke 9:38); aphiemi, "to let go," "to send away" (Mark 15:37 the King James Version); epiboao, "to cry about" (anything) (Acts, 25:24); epiphoneo, "to give forth the voice upon" (Luke 23:21 the King James Version); kraugazo, "to make a cry, or outcry, or clamor" (Matthew 12:19; Matthew 15:22; John 11:43; John 18:40; John 19:6,John 19:15; Acts 22:23); anakrazo, "to cry out" (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33, etc.); krauge, "a crying out" (Matthew 25:6; Acts 23:9 the King James Version; Hebrews 5:7; Revelation 21:4).

For "cry" the Revised Version (British and American) has "sound" (2 Chronicles 13:12); "cry because of these things" (Job 30:24 the English Revised Version); "cry out" (Job 31:38; Isaiah 42:14); "call" (Psalms 28:1; Psalms 61:2; Psalms 141:1); "be blind" (Isaiah 29:9); "groan" (Ezekiel 26:15); "pant" (Joel 1:20); "cry aloud" (Matthew 12:19); "clamor" (Acts 23:9). Among the other changes are, "moan" for "cry aloud" (Psalms 55:17); "sound an alarm" (Hosea 5:8); "take your pleasure," margin "blind yourselves." for "cry ye out" (Isaiah 29:9): "sigh, but not aloud" for "forbear to cry" (Ezekiel 21:17); "shoutings" for "crying" (Job 39:7); "destruction" for "crying" (Proverbs 19:18, where we have instead of "let not thy soul spare for his crying," "set not thy heart on his destruction," margin, Hebrew "causing him to die" (muth, "to put to death")); "went up" for "crying aloud" (Mark 15:8, different text); "cry" for "voice" (Luke 1:42); for "had cried" (Luke 23:46), the American Standard Revised Version has "crying."

W. L. Walker

Crystal

kris'-tal: In English Versions of the Bible the word is probably intended to signify rock-crystal, crystallized quartz. This the Greeks called krustallos, "ice," believing it to have been formed from water by intense cold. Thus in Revelation 4:6; Revelation 21:11; Revelation 22:1, either "crystal" (EV) or "ice" (Greek, krustallos) suits the context. The word rendered "crystal" in Ezekiel 1:22 (qerach) is ambiguous in precisely the same way (the Revised Version, margin "ice"). In Job 28:17 the context favors the King James Version "crystal," rather than the Revised Version (British and American) "glass" (zekhukhith). Finally, in Job 28:18 the Revised Version (British and American) reads "crystal" for the King James Version "pearls" (Hebrew gabhish; the weight of evidence favors the Revised Version (British and American) in spite of the parallelism suggested by the King James Version).

See also STONES, PRECIOUS. F. K. Farr

Cub

kub (kubh; the King James Version Chub): The word occurs only in Ezekiel 30:5. There it is almost certainly a corruption, and we should read, as in Septuagint, "Lub," i.e. Libya. Libya, in the earlier part of the same verse (the King James Version), is a mistr of "Put," thus correctly rendered in the Revised Version (British and American).

Cubit

ku'-bit ('ammah; pechus): The standard for measures of length among the Hebrews. They derived it from the Babylonians, but a similar measure was used in Egypt with which they must have been familiar. The length of the cubit is variously estimated, since there seems to have been a double standard in both countries, and because we have no undisputed example of the cubit remaining to the present time. The original cubit was the length of the forearm, from the elbow to the end of the middle finger, as is implied from the derivation of the word in Hebrew and in Latin (cubitum). It seems to be referred to also in Deuteronomy 3:11: "after the cubit of a man." But this was too indefinite for a scientific standard, and the Babylonians early adopted a more accurate method of measurement which passed to the nations of the West. They had a double standard, the so-called royal cubit and the ordinary one. From the remains of buildings in Assyria and Babylonia, the former is made out to be about 20,6 inches, and a cubit of similar length was used in Egypt and must have been known to the Hebrews. This was probably the cubit mentioned by Ezekiel 40:5 and perhaps that of Solomon's temple, "cubits after the first measure" (2 Chronicles 3:3), i.e. the ancient cubit. The ordinary cubit of commerce was shorter, and has been variously estimated at between 16 and 18 or more inches, but the evidence of the Siloam inscription and of the tombs in Palestine seems to indicate 17,6 inches as the average length. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. This was the cubit of six palms, while the longer one was of seven (Ezekiel 40:5). The cubit mentioned in Judges 3:16 is from a different word in Hebrew (gomedh) and was probably shorter, for Ehud girded it on his thigh under his clothing.

The New Testament references are Matthew 6:27; Luke 12:25, "Which of you .... can add a cubit unto the measure of his life?"; John 21:18, "about two hundred cubits off"; Revelation 21:17, "the wall thereof, a hundred and forty and four cubits."

H. Porter

Cuckow; Cuckoo

kook'-oo, kuk'-oo (shachaph; laros; Latin Cuculus canorus): The Hebrew root from which the word shachaph is derived means "to be lean" and "slender," and in older versions of the Bible was translated cuckow (cuckoo). It was mentioned twice in the Bible (Leviticus 11:16, and practically the same in Deuteronomy 14:15 the King James Version "cuckoo"), in the list of unclean birds. The Latin term by which we designate the bird is very similar to the Arabic, and all names for it in different countries are so nearly the same that they prove themselves based on its double cry, "cuck-oo," or the single note "kowk" or "gouk." The bird is as old as history, and interesting because the European species placed its eggs in the nests of other birds, which gave rise to much fiction concerning its habits. The European bird is a brownish gray with white bars underneath, and larger than ours, which are a beautiful olive gray, with tail feathers of irregular length touched with white, knee tufts, black or yellow bill, according to species, and beautiful sleek head and shining eyes. Our birds build their own nests, attend their young with care and are much loved for their beauty. Their food is not repulsive in any species; there never was any reason why they should have been classed among the abominations, and for these reasons scientists in search of a "lean, slender" bird of offensive diet and habit have selected the "sea-mew" (which see) which is substituted for cuckoo in the Revised Version (British and American) with good natural-history reason to sustain the change.

Gene Stratton-Porter

Cucumber

ku'-kum-ber (qishshu'im; sikuos): One of the articles of food for which Israel in the wilderness looked back with longing to Egypt (Numbers 11:5). Cucumbers are great favorites with all the people of Palestine. Two varieties occur, Cucumis sativus (Arabic, Khyar), originally a product of Northwest India, which is smooth-skinned, whitish and of delicate flavor, and requires much water in its cultivation, and Cucumis chate (Arabic, faqqus), which is long and slender but less juicy than the former. Probably the Biblical reference is to this latter as it is a plant much grown in Egypt where it is said to attain unusual excellence.

A "garden of cucumbers" or more literally a "place of cucumbers" (miqshdh), is mentioned in Isaiah 1:8; Baruch 6:70. "A lodge in a garden of cucumbers" (Isaiah 1:8) is the rough wooden booth erected by the owner from which he keeps guard over his ripening vegetables. It is commonly raised upon poles and, when abandoned for the season, it falls into decay and presents a dreary spectacle of tottering poles and dead leaves.

E. W. G. Masterman

Cud

See CHEW.

Culture

kul'-tur: Found only in 2 Esdras 8:6 the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American), "give .... culture to our understanding," i.e. to nourish it as seed in the ground.

Cumber; Cumbered

kum'-ber, (katargeo, "to make idle," perispaomai, "to be drawn about," in mind "to be distracted"): Spoken of the barren fig tree in the parable: "Cut it down; why doth it also cumber (block up, make unproductive) the ground?" (Luke 13:7). Cumbered means to be over-occupied with cares or business, distracted: "But Martha was cumbered about much serving" (Luke 10:40). The word cumbrance occurs only in Deuteronomy 1:12: "How can I myself alone bear your cumbrance?" (Torach, "an encumbrance," "a burden"). Compare Isaiah 1:14, where the Revised Version, margin has "cumbrance," the Revised Version (British and American) "trouble."

Cumi

koo'-me, ku'-mi.

See TALITHA CUMI.

Cummin

kum'-in (kammon; kuminon): The seed of the herb Cuminum cyminum (Natural Order Umbelliferae). It has carminative properties and is used for flavoring various dishes, especially during fasts. In flavor and appearance it resembles caraway, though it is less agreeable to western palates. As an illustration of Yahweh's wisdom it is said (Isaiah 28:25,Isaiah 28:27) that cummin is scattered in sowing and beaten out with a rod in threshing. These facts are true in Palestine today. The Jews paid tithes of cummin (Matthew 23:23) (see cut on following page).

Cun

kun (kun, A, ek ton eklekton poleon, "from the chosen cities"): One of the cities of Hadarezer, king of Syria, spoiled by David (1 Chronicles 18:8, the King James Version "Chun"). In the parallel passage (2 Samuel 8:8) its place is taken by BEROTHAH, which see.