Food – Forbearance

Food

food:

I. VEGETABLE FOODS

1. Primitive Habits

2. Cereals

3. Leguminous Plants

4. Food of Trees

II. ANIMAL FOOD

LITERATURE

In a previous article (see BREAD) it has been shown that in the Bible "bread" usually stands for food in general and how this came to be so. In a complementary article on MEALS the methods of preparing and serving food will be dealt with. This article is devoted specifically to the foodstuffs of the Orient, more especially to articles of food in use among the Hebrews in Bible times. These are divisible into two main classes.

I. Vegetable Foods.

1. Primitive Habits:

Orientals in general are vegetarians, rather than flesh eaters. There is some reason to believe that primitive man was a vegetarian (see Genesis 2:16; Genesis 3:2,Genesis 3:6). It would seem, indeed, from a comparison of Genesis 1:29 f with 9:3 f that Divine permission to eat the flesh of animals was first given to Noah after the Deluge, and then only on condition of drawing off the blood in a prescribed way (compare the kosher (kasher) meat of the Jews of today).

2. Cereals:

The chief place among the foodstuffs of Orientals must be accorded to the cereals, included in the American Standard Revised Version under the generic term "grain," in the King James Version and the English Revised Version "corn." The two most important of these in the nearer East are wheat (chiTTah) and barley (se`orim). The most primitive way of using the wheat as food was to pluck the (Leviticus 23:14; 2 Kings 4:42), remove the husks by rubbing in the hands (Deuteronomy 23:25; Matthew 12:1), and eat the grains raw. A common practice in all lands and periods, observed by the fellaheen of Syria today, has been to parch or roast the ears and eat the grain not ground. This is the parched corn (the American Standard Revised Version "'grain") so often mentioned in the Old Testament, which with bread and vinegar (sour wine) constituted the meal of the reapers to which Boaz invited Ru (Ruth 2:14).

Later it became customary to grind the wheat into flour (kemach), and, by bolting it with a fine sieve, to obtain the "fine flour" (coleth) of our English Versions of the Bible, which, of course, was then made into "bread" (which see), either without leaven (matstsah) or with (lechem chamets Leviticus 7:13).

Meal, both of wheat and of barley, was prepared in very early times by means of the primitive rubbing-stones, which excavations at Lachish, Gezer and elsewhere show survived the introduction of the hand-mill (see MILL; Compare PEFS, 1902, 326). Barley (se`orim) has always furnished the principal food of the poorer classes, and, like wheat, has been made into bread (Judges 7:13; John 6:9,John 6:13). Less frequently millet (Ezekiel 4:9) and spelt (kuccemeth; see FITCHES) were so used. (For details of baking, bread-making, etc., see BREAD. III, 1,2,3.)

3. Leguminous Plants:

Vegetable foods of the pulse family (leguminosae) are represented in the Old Testament chiefly by lentils and beans. The pulse of Daniel 1:12 (zero`im) denotes edible "herbs" in general (Revised Version margin, compare Isaiah 61:11, "things that are sown"). The lentils (`adhashim) were and are considered very toothsome and nutritious. It was of "red lentils" that Jacob brewed his fateful pottage (Genesis 25:29,Genesis 25:34), a stew, probably, in which the lentils were flavored with onions and other ingredients, as we find it done in Syria today. Lentils, beans, cereals, etc., were sometimes ground and mixed and made into bread (Ezekiel 4:9). I found them at Gaza roasted also, and eaten with oil and salt, like parched corn.

The children of Israel, when in the wilderness, are said to have looked back wistfully on the "cucumbers .... melons .... leeks .... onions, and the garlic" of Egypt (Numbers 11:5). All these things we find later were grown in Palestine. In addition, at least four varieties of the bean, the chickpea, various species of chickory and endive, the bitter herbs of the Passover ritual (Exodus 12:8), mustard (Matthew 13:31) and many other things available for food, are mentioned in the Mishna, our richest source of information on this subject. Cucumbers (qishshu'im) were then, as now, much used. The oriental variety is much less fibrous and more succulent. and digestible than ours, and supplies the thirsty traveler often with a fine substitute for water where water is scarce or bad. The poor in such cities as Cairo, Beirut and Damascus live largely on bread and cucumbers or melons. The cucumbers are eaten raw, with or without salt, between meals, but also often stuffed and cooked and eaten at meal time. Onions (betsalim), garlic (shummim) and leeks (chatsir) are still much used in Palestine as in Egypt. They are usually eaten raw with bread, though also used for flavoring in cooking, and, like cucumbers, pickled and eaten as a relish with meat (ZDPV, IX, 14). Men in utter extremity sometimes "plucked saltwort" (malluah) and ate the leaves, either raw or boiled, and made "the roots of the broom" their food (Job 30:4).

4. Food of Trees:

In Leviticus 19:23 f it is implied that, when Israel came into the land to possess it, they should "plant all manner of trees for food." They doubtless found such trees in the goodly land in abundance, but in the natural course of things needed to plant more. Many olive trees remain fruitful to extreme old age, as for example those shown the tourist in the garden of Gethsemane, but many more require replanting. Then the olive after planting requires ten or fifteen years to fruit, and trees of a quicker growth, like the fig, are planted beside them and depended on for fruit in the meantime. It is significant that Jotham in his parable makes the olive the first choice of the trees to be their king (Judges 9:9), and the olive tree to respond, "Should I leave my fatness, which God and man honor in me, and go to wave to and fro over the trees?" (American Revised Version margin). The berries of the olive (zayith) were doubtless eaten, then as now, though nowhere in Scripture is it expressly so stated. The chief use of the berries, now as ever, is in furnishing "oil" (which see), but they are eaten in the fresh state, as also after being soaked in brine, by rich and poor alike, and are shipped in great quantities. Olive trees are still more or less abundant in Palestine, especially around Bethlehem and Hebron, on the borders of the rich plains of Esdraelon, Phoenicia, Sharon and Philistia, in the vale of Shechem, the plain of Moreh, and in the trans-Jordanic regions of Gilead and Bashan. They are esteemed as among the best possessions of the towns, and the culture of them is being revived around Jerusalem, in the Jordan valley and elsewhere throughout the land. They are beautiful to behold in all stages of their growth, but especially in spring. Then they bear an amazing wealth of blossoms, which in the breeze fall in showers like snowflakes, a fact that gives point to Job's words, "He shall cast off his flower as the olive-tree" (Job 15:33). The mode of gathering the fruit is still about what it was in ancient times (compare Exodus 27:20).

Next in rank to the olive, according to Jotham's order, though first as an article of food, is the fig (in the Old Testament te'enah, in the New Testament suke), whose "sweetness" is praised in the parable (Judges 9:11). It is the principal shade and fruit tree of Palestine, growing in all parts, in many spontaneously, and is the emblem of peace and prosperity (Deuteronomy 8:8; Judges 9:10; 1 Kings 4:25; Micah 4:4; Zechariah 3:10; /APC 1Macc 14:12). The best fig and olive orchards are carefully plowed, first in the spring when the buds are swelling, sometimes again when the second crop is sprouting, and again after the first rains in the autumn. The "first-ripe fig" (bikkurah, Isaiah 28:4; Jeremiah 24:2), i.e. the early fig which grows on last year's wood, was and is esteemed as a great delicacy, and is often eaten while it is young and green. The late fig (te'enim) is the kind dried in the sun and put up in quantities for use out of season. Among the Greeks and the Romans, as well as among the Hebrews, dried figs were most extensively used. When pressed in a mold they formed the "cakes of figs" (debhelah) mentioned in the Old Testament (1 Samuel 25:18; 1 Chronicles 12:40), doubtless about such as are found today in Syria and Smyrna, put up for home use and for shipment. It was such a fig-cake that was presented as a poultice (the King James Version "plaster") for Hezekiah's boil (Isaiah 38:21; compare 2 Kings 20:7). As the fruit-buds of the fig appear before the leaves, a tree full of leaves and without fruit would be counted "barren" (Mark 11:12 f; compare Isaiah 28:4; Jeremiah 24:2; Hosea 9:10; Nahum 3:12; Matthew 21:19; Luke 13:7).

Grapes ('anabhim), often called "the fruit of the vine" (Matthew 26:29), have always been a much- prized article of food in the Orient. They are closely associated in the Bible with the fig (compare "every man under his vine and under his fig-tree," 1 Kings 4:25). Like the olive, the fig, and the date-palm, grapes are indigenous to Syria, the soil and climate being most favorable to their growth and perfection. Southern Palestine especially yields a rich abundance of choice grapes, somewhat as in patriarchal times (Genesis 49:11,Genesis 49:12). J. T. Haddad, a native Syrian, for many years in the employment of the Turkish government, tells of a variety in the famous valley of Eshcol near Hebron, a bunch from which has been known to weigh twenty-eight pounds (compare Numbers 13:23). Of the grapevine there is nothing wasted; the young leaves are used as a green vegetable, and the old are fed to sheep and goats. The branches cut off in pruning, as well as the dead trunk, are used to make charcoal, or for firewood. The failure of such a fruit was naturally regarded as a judgment from Yahweh (Psalms 105:33; Jeremiah 5:17; Hosea 2:12; Joel 1:7). Grapes, like figs, were both enjoyed in their natural state, and by exposure to the sun dried into raisins (tsimmuqim), the "dried grapes" of Numbers 6:3. In this form they were especially well suited to the use of travelers and soldiers (1 Samuel 25:18; 1 Chronicles 12:40). The meaning of the word rendered "raisin-cake," the American Standard Revised Version "a cake of raisins" (2 Samuel 6:19 and elsewhere), is uncertain. In Bible times the bulk of the grape product of the land went to the making of wine (which see). Some doubt if the Hebrews knew grape-syrup, but the fact that the Aramaic dibs, corresponding to Hebrew debhash, is used to denote both the natural and artificial honey (grape-syrup), seems to indicate that they knew the latter (compare Genesis 43:11; Ezekiel 27:17; and see HONEY).

Less prominent was the fruit of the mulberry figtree (or sycomore) (shiqmah), of the date-palm (tamar), the dates of which, according to the Mishna, were both eaten as they came from the tree, and dried in clusters and pressed into cakes for transport; the pomegranate (tappuach), the "apple" of the King James Version (see APPLE), or quinch, according to others; the husks (Luke 15:16), i.e. the pods of the carob tree keration), are treated elsewhere. Certain nuts were favorite articles of food--pistachio nuts (boTnim), almonds (sheqedhim) and walnuts ('eghoz); and certain spices and vegetables were much used for seasoning: cummin (kammon), anise, dill (the King James Version) qetsach), mint (heduosmon) and mustard (sinapi), which see. Salt (melach), of course, played an important part, then as now, in the cooking and in the life of the Orientals. To "eat the salt" of a person was synonymous with eating his bread (Ezra 4:14), and a "covenant of salt" was held inviolable (Numbers 18:19; 2 Chronicles 13:5).

II. Animal Food.

Anciently, even more than now in the East, flesh food was much less used than among western peoples. In the first place, in Israel and among other Semitic peoples, it was confined by law to the use of such animals and birds as were regarded as "clean" (see CLEAN; UNCLEANNESS), or speaking according to the categories of Leviticus 11:2,Leviticus 11:3; Deuteronomy 14:4–20, domestic animals and game (see Driver on Deuteronomy 14:4–20). Then the poverty of the peasantry from time immemorial has tended to limit the use of meat to special occasions, such as family festivals (chaggim), the entertainment of an honored guest (Genesis 18:7; 2 Samuel 12:4), and the sacrificial meal at the local sanctuary.

The goat (`ez, etc.), especially the "kid of the goats" (Leviticus 4:23,Leviticus 4:18 the King James Version), was more prized for food by the ancient Hebrews than by modern Orientals, by whom goats are kept chiefly for their milk--most of which they supply (compare Proverbs 27:27). For this reason they are still among the most valued possessions of rich and poor (compare Genesis 30:33; Genesis 32:14 with 1 Samuel 25:2). A kid, as less valuable than a lamb, was naturally the readier victim when meat was required (compare Luke 15:29).

The sheep of Palestine, as of Egypt, are mainly of the fat-tailed species (Ovis aries), the tail of which was forbidden as ordinary food and had to be offered with certain other portions of the fat (Exodus 29:22; Leviticus 3:9). To kill a lamb in honor of a gue st is one of the highest acts of Bedouin hospitality. As a rule only the lambs are killed for meat, and they only in honor of some guest or festive occasion (compare 1 Samuel 25:18; 1 Kings 1:19). Likewise the "calves of the herd" supplied the daintiest food of the kind, though the flesh of the neat cattle, male and female, was eaten. The "fatted calf" of Luke 15:23 will be recalled, as also the "fatlings" and the "stalled" (stall-fed) ox of the Old Testament (Proverbs 15:17). Asharp contrast suggestive of the growth of luxury in Israel is seen by a comparison of 2 Samuel 17:28 f with 1 Kings 4:22 f. The food furnished David and his hardy followers at Mahanaim was "wheat, and barley, and meal, and parched grain, and beans, and lentils, and parched pulse, and honey, and butter, and sheep, and cheese of the herd," while the daily provision for Solomon's table was "thirty measures of fine flour, and threescore measures of meal, ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen out of the pastures, and a hundred sheep, besides harts, and gazelles, and roebucks, and fatted fowl." Nehemiah's daily portion is given as "one ox and six choice sheep" (Nehemiah 5:18).

Milk of large and small animals was a staple article of food (Deuteronomy 32:14; Proverbs 27:27). It was usually kept in skins, as among the Syrian peasants it is today (Judges 4:19). We find a generic term often used (chem'ah) which covers also cream, clabber and cheese (Proverbs 30:33). The proper designation of cheese is gebhinah (Job 10:10), but chalabh also is used both for ordinary milk and for a cheese made directly from sweet milk (compare 1 Samuel 17:18, charitse hechalabh, and our "cottage cheese").

See MILK.

Honey (debhash, nopheth ha-tsuphim), so often mentioned with milk, is ordinary bees' honey (see HONEY). The expression "honey" in the combination debhash wechalabh, for which Palestine was praised, most likely means debhash temarim, i.e. "date-juice." It was much prized and relished (Psalms 19:10; Proverbs 16:24), and seems to have been a favorite food for children (Isaiah 7:15).

Of game seven species are mentioned (Deuteronomy 14:5). The gazelle and the hart were the typical animals of the chase, much prized for their flesh (Deuteronomy 12:15), and doubtless supplied the venison of Esau's "savory meat" (Genesis 25:28; Genesis 27:4).

Of fish as food little is said in the Old Testament (see Numbers 11:5; Jeremiah 16:16; Ezekiel 47:10; Ecclesiastes 9:12). No particular species is named, although thirty-six species are said to be found in the waters of the Jordan valley alone. But we may be sure that the fish which the Hebrews enjoyed in Egypt "for nought" (Numbers 11:5) had their successors in Canaan (Kennedy). Trade in cured fish was carried on by Tyrian merchants with Jerusalem in Nehemiah's day (Nehemiah 13:16), and there must have been a fish market at or near the fish gate (Nehemiah 3:3). The Sea of Galilee in later times was the center of a great fish industry, as is made clear by the Gospels and by Josephus In the market of Tiberias today fresh fish are sold in great quantities, and a thriving trade in salt fish is carried on. The "small fishes" of our Lord's two great miracles of feeding were doubtless of this kind, as at all times they have been a favorite form of provision for a journey in hot countries.

As to the exact price of food in ancient times little is known. From 2 Kings 7:1,2 Kings 7:16 we learn that one ce'ah of fine flour, and two of barley, sold for a shekel (compare Matthew 10:29). For birds allowed as food see Deuteronomy 14:11 and articles on CLEAN; UNCLEANNESS.

Pigeons and turtle doves find a place in the ritual of various sacrifices, and so are to be reckoned as "clean" for ordinary uses as well. The species of domestic fowl found there today seem to have been introduced during the Persian period (compare 2 Esdras 1:30; Matthew 23:37; Matthew 26:34, etc.). It is thought that the fatted fowl of Solomon's table (1 Kings 4:23) were geese (see Mish). Fatted goose is a favorite food with Jews today, as it was with the ancient Egyptians.

Of game birds used for food (see Nehemiah 5:18) the partridge and the quail are prominent, and the humble sparrow comes in for his share of mention (Matthew 10:29; Luke 12:6). Then, as now, the eggs of domestic fowls and of all "clean" birds were favorite articles of food (Deuteronomy 22:6; Isaiah 10:14; Luke 11:12).

Edible insects (Leviticus 11:22 f) are usually classed with animal foods. In general they are of the locust family (see LOCUST). They formed part of the food of John the Baptist (Matthew 3:4, etc.), were regarded by the Assyrians as delicacies, and are a favorite food of the Arabs today. They are prepared and served in various ways, the one most common being to remove the head, legs and wings, to drop it in meal, and then fry it in oil or butter. It then tastes a little like fried frogs' legs. In the diet of the Baptist, locusts were associated with wild honey (see HONEY).

As to condiments (see separate articles on SALT; CORIANDER, etc.) it needs only to be said here that the caperberry (Ecclesiastes 12:5 margin) was eaten before meals as an appetizer and, strictly speaking, was not a condiment. Mustard was valued for the leaves, not for the seed (Matthew 13:31). Pepper, though not mentioned in Scripture, is mentioned margin the Mishna as among the condiments. Before it came into use, spicy seeds like cummin, the coriander, etc., played a more important role than since.

The abhorrence of the Hebrews for all food prepared or handled by the heathen (see ABOMINATION) is to be attributed primarily to the intimate association in early times between flesh food and sacrifices to the gods. This finds conspicuous illustration in the case of Daniel (Daniel 1:8), Judas Maccabeus (2 Macc 5:27), Josephus (Vita, III), and their compatriots (see also Acts 15:20,Acts 15:29; 1 Corinthians 8:1–10; 1 Corinthians 10:19,1 Corinthians 10:28). As to sources of food supply and traffic in food stuffs, for primitive usages see Genesis 18:7; Genesis 27:9; 1 Kings 21:2. As to articles and customs of commerce adopted when men became dwellers in cities, see Jeremiah 37:21, where bakers were numerous enough in Jerusalem to give their name to a street or bazaar, where doubtless, as today, they baked and sold bread to the public (compare Mishna,passim). Extensive trade in "victuals" in Nehemiah's day is attested by Nehemiah 13:15 f, and by specific mention of the "fish gate" (3:3) and the "sheep gate" (3:1), so named evidently because of their nearby markets. In John's Gospel (John 4:8; John 13:29) we have incidental evidence that the disciples were accustomed to buy food as they journeyed through the land. In Jerusalem, cheese was clearly to be bought in the cheesemakers' valley (Tyropoeon), oil of the oil merchants (Matthew 25:9), and so on; and Corinth, we may be sure, was not the only city of Paul's day that had a provision market ("shambles," 1 Corinthians 10:25 the Revised Version (British and American)).

LITERATURE.

Mishna B.M. i. 1,2 and passim; Josephus, Vita and BJ; Robinson's Researches, II, 416, etc.; and Biblical Dictionaries, articles on "Food," etc.

George B. Eager

Fool; Folly

fool nabhal, 'ewil, kecil, cakhal and forms; aphron, aphrosune, moros):

I. In the Old Testament.

1. General:

Taking the words generally, apart from the Wisdom literature, we find nabhal frequently translated "fool" and nebhalah, "folly"; nabhal, however, denotes a wicked person, an evil character, "shamelessly immoral," equivalent to "a son of Belial" (Cheyne), rather than a merely "foolish" person, and nebhalah, "wickedness," "shameless impropriety," rather than simple folly. We have almost a definition of nabhal in Isaiah 32:6: "For the fool will speak folly, and his heart will work iniquity, to practice profaneness, and to utter error against Yahweh, to make empty the soul of the hungry, and to cause the drink of the thirsty to fail." Abigail described her husband, Nabhal, as "a son of Belial" (the Revised Version (British and American) "worthless fellow"), "for as his name is, so is he" (1 Samuel 25:25), and what we read of him bears out this character. Other occurrences of the words support the above meaning; they are generally associated with some form of wickedness, frequently with base and unnatural lewdness (Genesis 34:7; Deuteronomy 22:21; Joshua 7:15; Judges 19:23,Revelation 18:14; Revelation 19:6,Revelation 19:10; 2 Samuel 13:12). When in Psalms 14:1; Psalms 53:1 it is said, "The fool hath said in his heart, There is no God," it is followed by the statement, "They are corrupt, they have done abominable works," showing that more than "folly" is implied. In Isaiah 32:5,Isaiah 32:6 the King James Version nabhal is translated "vile person" and nebhalah "villany," the Revised Version (British and American) "fool" and "folly," Jeremiah 29:23; halal, implying loud boasting is in the King James Version translated "foolish," but it means, rather, "arrogant," which the Revised Version (British and American) adopts (Psalms 5:5; Psalms 73:3; Psalms 75:4, margin "fools"); cakhal, "a fool," also occurs (Genesis 31:28; 1 Samuel 13:13, etc.) for which word see (4) below; also ya'al "to be empty," "to be or become foolish" (Numbers 12:11; Isaiah 19:13; Jeremiah 5:4; Jeremiah 50:36).

2. The Wisdom Literature:

In the Chokhmah or Wisdom literature, which, within the Bible, is contained in Job, Proverbs (especially), Ecclesiastes, Canticles, some Psalms and certain portions of the prophetic writings, "fool" and "folly" are frequent and distinctive words. Their significance is best seen in contrast with "Wisdom." This was the outcome of careful observation and long pondering on actual life in the light of religion and the Divine revelation. Wisdom had its seat in God and was imparted to those who "feared" Him ("The fear of Yahweh is the beginning (chief part) of knowledge" Proverbs 1:7). Such wisdom was the essence of life, and to be without it was to walk in the way of death and destruction. The fool was he who was thoughtless, careless, conceited, self-sufficient, indifferent to God and His Will, or who might even oppose and scoff at religion and wise instruction. See WISDOM. Various words are used to designate "the fool" and his "folly."

(1) nabhal (Job 2:10; Job 30:8; Psalms 53:1; Proverbs 17:7–21); nebhalah (Job 42:8; Isaiah 9:17) (see above).

(2) 'ewil, one of the commonest, the idea conveyed by which is that of one who is hasty, impatient, self-sufficient (Proverbs 12:15; Proverbs 15:5; Proverbs 16:22); despising advice and instruction (Proverbs 1:7; Proverbs 14:9; Proverbs 24:7); ready to speak and act without thinking (Proverbs 10:14; Proverbs 12:16; Proverbs 20:3); quick to get angry, quarrel and cause strife (Proverbs 11:29; Proverbs 14:17 'iwweleth; 29:9); unrestrained in his anger (Job 5:2; Proverbs 17:12); silly, stupid even with brute stupidity (Proverbs 7:22; Proverbs 26:11; Proverbs 27:22; compare Isaiah 19:11; Jeremiah 4:22); he is associated with "transgression" (Psalms 107:17; Proverbs 13:15; Proverbs 17:18,Proverbs 17:19), with "sin" (Proverbs 24:9), with the "scoffer" (same place) ; 'iwweleth, "foolishness" occurs (Psalms 38:5; Psalms 69:5; Proverbs 13:16; "folly," Ps 14:8,24,29, etc.).

(3) kecil is the word most frequent in Proverbs. It is probably from a root meaning "thickness," "sluggishness," suggesting a slow, self-confident person, but it is used with a wide reference.

Self-confidence appears (Proverbs 14:16; Proverbs 28:26); ignorance (Ecclesiastes 2:14); hate of instruction (Proverbs 1:22; Proverbs 18:2); thoughtlessness (Proverbs 10:23; Proverbs 17:24); self-exposure (Proverbs 14:33; Proverbs 15:2; Proverbs 18:7; Proverbs 29:11; Ecclesiastes 5:1; Ecclesiastes 10:12); anger and contention (Proverbs 18:6; Proverbs 19:1; Ecclesiastes 7:9); rage (Proverbs 14:16; Proverbs 17:12); indolence and improvidence (Ecclesiastes 4:5; Proverbs 21:20); silly merriment (Ecclesiastes 7:4,Ecclesiastes 7:5,Ecclesiastes 7:6); brutishness (Proverbs 26:11; compare Psalms 49:10; Psalms 92:6); it is associated with slander (Proverbs 10:18), with evil (Proverbs 13:19).

(4) cakhal, cekhel, cikhluth, also occur. These are probably from a root meaning "to be stopped up" (Cheyne), and are generally taken as denoting thickheadedness; but they are used in a stronger sense than mere foolishness (compare 1 Samuel 26:21; 2 Samuel 24:10, etc.). These words do not occur in Prov, but in Ecclesiastes 2:12; Ecclesiastes 7:25; cikhluth is associated with "madness" ("Wickedness is folly, and .... foolishness is madness").

(5) pethi, "simple," is only once translated "foolish" (Proverbs 9:6 the King James Version).

(6) ba`ar, 'brutish," is translated "foolish" (Psalms 73:22 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "brutish").

(7) taphel, "insipid," "untempered," is translated "foolish" (Lamentations 2:14); tiphlah, "insipidity" (Job 1:22, "foolishly," the English Revised Version, "with foolishness"; Job 24:12, "folly"; Jeremiah 23:13, "folly," the King James Version margin "unsavoury, or, an absurd thing").

(8) toholah (Job 4:18: "Behold, he putteth no trust in his servants; and his angels he chargeth with folly" (Delitzsch, "imperfection," others, "error"), the King James Version margin "nor in his angels in whom he put light").

II. In the Apocrypha.

In the continuation of the Wisdom literature in The Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclus, "fool" frequently occurs with a signification similar to that in Proverbs; in The Wisdom of Solomon we have aphron (12:24; 15:5, etc.), in Ecclesiasticus, moros (18:18; 19:11, etc.; 20:13; 21:16, etc.).

III. In the New Testament.

In the New Testament we have various words translated "fool," "foolish," "folly," etc., in the ordinary acceptation of these terms; aphron, "mindless," "witless" (Luke 11:40; Luke 12:20; 1 Corinthians 15:36); aphrosune, "want of mind or wisdom" (2 Corinthians 11:1; Mark 7:22); anoia, "want of understanding" (2 Timothy 3:9); moraino, "to make dull," "foolish" (Romans 1:22; 1 Corinthians 1:20); moros, "dull," "stupid" (Matthew 7:26; Matthew 23:17; Matthew 25:2; 1 Corinthians 1:25,1 Corinthians 1:27); moria, "foolishness" (1 Corinthians 1:18 etc.); morologia, "foolish talk" (Ephesians 5:4).

In Matthew 5:22 our Lord says: "Whosoever shall say (to his brother), Thou fool (more), shall be in danger of the hell of fire (the Gehenna of fire)." Two explanations of this word are possible:

(1) that it is not the vocative of the Greek moros--a word which was applied by Jesus Himself to the Pharisees (Matthew 23:17,Matthew 23:19), but represents the Hebrew morah, "rebel" applied in Numbers 20:10 by Moses to the people, "ye rebels" (for which he was believed to be excluded from the promised land; compare Numbers 20:12; hence, we have in the Revised Version, margin "or moreh, a Hebrew expression of condemnation"); or

(2) that, as our Lord spake in the Aramaic it is the Greek translation of a word representing the Hebrew nabhal, "vile, or worthless fellow," atheist, etc. (Psalms 14:1; Psalms 53:1).

W. L. Walker

Foolery

fool'-er-i:

The plural "fooleries" occurs Ecclesiasticus 22:13 King James Version: "Talk not much with a fool .... and thou shalt never be defiled with his fooleries." The Greek word is entinagmos, "a striking or throwing in," "an attack," from entinasso, "to strike into," "cast at," etc. (Genesis 11:11). the Revised Version (British and American) renders "Thou shalt not be defiled in his onslaught," margin "defiled: in his onslaught turn." The meaning is most probably "with what he throws out," i.e. his foolish or vile speeches, as if it were slaver.

Foot

foot (reghel, qarcol (only twice in parallel passages: 2 Samuel 22:37 = Psalms 18:36, where it probably means ankle); pous): The dusty roads of Palestine and other eastern lands make a much greater care of the feet necessary than we are accustomed to bestow upon them. The absence of socks or stockings, the use of sandals and low shoes rather than boots and, to an even greater degree, the frequent habit of walking barefoot make it necessary to wash the feet repeatedly every day. This is always done when entering the house, especially the better upper rooms which are usually carpeted. It is a common dictate of good manners to perform this duty to a visitor, either personally or through a servant; at least water for washing has to be presented (Genesis 18:4; Luke 7:44). This has therefore become almost synonymous with the bestowal of hospitality (1 Timothy 5:10). At an early date this service was considered one of the lowest tasks of servants (1 Samuel 25:41), probably because the youngest and least trained servants were charged with the task, or because of the idea of defilement connected with the foot. It was, for the same reason, if rendered voluntarily, a service which betokened complete devotion. Jesus taught the greatest lesson of humility by performing this humble service to His disciples (John 13:4–15). The undoing of the latchets or leather thongs of the sandals (Mark 1:7; Luke 3:16; John 1:27) seems to refer to the same menial duty.

Often the feet and shoes were dusted on the highway, as is being done in the Orient to this day, but if it were done in an ostentatious manner in the presence of a person or a community who had refused hospitality to a stranger, it was understood in the same sense in which the cutting in two of the tablecloth was considered in the days of knighthood: it meant rejection and separation (Matthew 10:14; Acts 13:51).

The roads of the desert were not only dusty but rough, and the wanderer was almost sure to ruin his ill-made shoes and wound his weary feet. A special providence of God protected the children of Israel from this experience during the long journey through the wilderness. "Thy raiment waxed not old upon thee, neither did thy foot swell, these forty years" (Deuteronomy 8:4; Deuteronomy 29:5).

In the house shoes and sandals were never worn; even the most delicate would put on shoes only when going out (Deuteronomy 28:56). The shoes were left outside of the house or in a vestibule. This was especially done in the house of God and at the time of prayer, for whenever or wherever that might be, the law was: "Put off thy shoes from off thy feet, for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground" (Exodus 3:5; Joshua 5:15; Acts 7:33). This custom still prevails among the Moslems of our day. Probably it was the idea of defilement through contact with the common ground which gave rise to its moral application by the Preacher, "Keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of God" (Ecclesiastes 5:1 (Hebrew 4:17)).

Nakedness of the feet in public, especially among the wealthier classes, who used to wear shoes or sandals, was a token of mourning (Ezekiel 24:17 and probably also Jer 2:25 and Isaiah 20:2–4). A peculiar ceremony is referred to in Deuteronomy 25:9,Deuteronomy 25:10, whereby a brother-in-law, who refused to perform his duty under the Levirate law, was publicly put to shame. "And his name shall be called in Israel, The house of him that hath his shoe loosed." See also Ruth 4:7,Ruth 4:8.

Numerous are the phrases in which the word "foot" or "feet" is used in Biblical language. "To cover the feet" (1 Samuel 24:3) is synonymous with obeying a call of Nature. "To speak with the feet" is expressive of the eloquence of abusive and obscene gesticulation among oriental people, where hands, eyes and feet are able to express much without the use of words (Proverbs 6:13). "To sit at the feet," means to occupy the place of a learner (Deuteronomy 33:3; Luke 10:39; Acts 22:3). Vanquished enemies had to submit to being trodden upon by the conqueror (a ceremony often represented on Egyptian monuments; Joshua 10:24; Psalms 8:6; Psalms 110:1; compare Isaiah 49:23). James warns against an undue humiliation of those who join us in the service of God, even though they be poor or mean-looking, by bidding them to take a lowly place at the feet of the richer members of the congregation (James 2:3). We read of dying Jacob that "he gathered up his feet into the bed," for he had evidently used his bed as a couch, on which he had been seated while delivering his charge to his several sons (Genesis 49:33). "Foot" or "feet" is sometimes used euphemistically for the genitals (Deuteronomy 28:57; Ezekiel 16:25). In Deuteronomy 11:10 an interesting reference is made to some Egyptian mode of irrigating the fields, `the watering with the foot,' which mode would be unnecessary in the promised land of Canaan which "drinketh water of the rain of heaven." It is, however, uncertain whether this refers to the water-wheels worked by a treadmill arrangement or whether reference is made to the many tributary channels, which, according to representations on the Egyptian monuments, intersected the gardens and fields and which could be stopped or opened by placing or removing a piece of sod at the mouth of the channel. This was usually done with the foot. Frequently we find references to the foot in expressions connected with journeyings and pilgrimages, which formed so large a part in the experiences of Israel, e.g. Psalms 91:12, "lest thou dash thy foot against a stone"; 94:18, "My foot slippeth"; 121:3, "He will not suffer thy foot to be moved," and many more. Often the reference is to the "walk," i.e. the moral conduct of life (Psalms 73:2; Job 23:11; Job 31:5).

Figurative: In the metaphorical language of Isaiah 52:7 "the feet" are synonymous with "the coming."

H. L. E. Luering

Footman

foot'-man.

See WAR.

Footstool

foot'-stool (kebhes; hupopodion, "trodden on"): The 15 Scripture references to this term may be classified as literal or figurative. Of the former are the two passages: 2 Chronicles 9:18 and James 2:3. In these the footstool was a sort of step or support for the feet placed before the throne or any pretentious seat.

Of figurative uses, there are the following groups:

(1) Of the earth: Isaiah 66:1; Matthew 5:35; Acts 7:49.

(2) Of the ark: 1 Chronicles 28:2.

(3) Of the Temple: Psalms 99:5; Psalms 132:7; Lamentations 2:1; compare Isaiah 60:13.

(4) Of heathen enemies subdued by the Messianic King: Psalms 110:1; Matthew 22:44 the King James Version; Mark 12:36; Luke 20:43; Acts 2:35; Hebrews 1:13; Hebrews 10:13.

Thus the uses of this term are mainly metaphorical and symbolic of subjection, either to God as universal Lord or to God's Son as King by redemptive right. Compare 1 Corinthians 15:25–27, in which all things, including death, are represented as subject to Christ and placed beneath His feet.

Leonard W. Doolan

For

for (ki (conjunction), le, from 'el (preposition), and various other words. In the New Testament also the words are various, chiefly gar, kai gar, hoti (conjunctions); anti apo eis dia (accusative), epi (dative and accusative), peri (genitive), pros (genitive and accusative), huper (genitive) (prepositions)): the English Revised Version and the American Standard Revised Version give in many cases more literal or more accurate renderings than those in the King James Version.

In the New Testament the most important preps. from a doctrinal point of view are anti, "face to face," "over against," "instead," "on behalf of," peri, "around," "about," "concerning," huper, "over," "on behalf of." The first has been claimed as stating the substitutionary nature of Christ's sacrifice as contrasted with huper and peri, more frequently used of it. But, although anti in the New Testament often means "instead of," "answering to," it does not necessarily imply substitution. On the other hand, in classical Greek huper is sometimes used in that sense (see Trench, Synonyms). "Here as always the root idea of the preposition, the root idea of the case, and the context must all be considered" (Robertson, Grammar, 124). Anti is found in this connection only in Matthew 20:28, and Mark 10:45. In Matthew 26:28; Mark 14:24, we have peri, also in Hebrews 10:6,Hebrews 10:8,Hebrews 10:18,Hebrews 10:26; 1 Peter 3:18; 1 Peter 3:1 John 2:2; John 4:10. Luke 22:19,Luke 22:20 has huper, which is the word commonly used by Paul, as in Romans 5:6,Romans 5:8; Romans 8:32; Romans 14:15; 1 Corinthians 15:3, etc., also by John in his Gospel, 6:51; 10:11, etc., and 1 John 3:16; also Hebrews 2:9; Hebrews 10:12; 1 Peter 2:21; 1 Peter 3:18; 1 Peter 4:1; in Romans 8:3 it is peri.

W. L. Walker

Foray

for'-a (2 Samuel 3:22).

See WAR.

Forbear

for-bar' (chadhal; anechomai): In the Old Testament chadhal, "to leave off," is the word most frequently translated "forbear" (Exodus 23:5, etc.); damam, "to be silent," chasakh, "to keep back," mashakh, "to draw or stretch out," occur once each; the Revised Version (British and American) renders Ezekiel 24:17 (damam), "Sigh, but not aloud," margin "Hebrew be silent,"; Proverbs 24:11 (chasakh), "See that thou hold back," margin "or forbear thou not to deliver," the King James Version "if thou forbear to deliver"; Nehemiah 9:30 (mashakh), "bear" instead of "forbear"; 'aph literally, "breathing," the "nose," hence, from violent breathing, "anger" ('erekh, "long," understood), and kul "to hold," are translated "forbearing" (Proverbs 25:15; Jeremiah 20:9, respectively).

In the New Testament we have anechomai, "to hold self back or up," "with longsuffering, forbearing one another" (Ephesians 4:2,; Colossians 3:13); aniemi "to send back," the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) "forbear threatening' (Ephesians 6:9); pheidomai, "to spare," "but I forbear" (2 Corinthians 12:6); meergazesthai, "not to work," "to forbear working" (1 Corinthians 9:6); stego, "to cover," "conceal": "when I could no longer forbear" (1 Thessalonians 3:1,1 Thessalonians 3:5).

W. L.Walker

Forbearance

for-bar'-ans (anoche):

"Forbearance" (anoche, "a holding back") is ascribed to God (Romans 2:4, "the riches of his goodness and forbearance and longsuffering"; 3:25 the Revised Version (British and American), "the passing over of the sins done aforetime, in the forbearance of God," the King James Version "remission" (margin "passing over") of sins, that are past, through the forbearance of God"); in Philippians 4:5, to epieikes is translated by the Revised Version (British and American) "forbearance," margin "gentleness"; it is a Christian grace in likeness to God. "Forbearing" (The King James Version, margin) is substituted by the Revised Version (British and American) for "patient" (anexikakos, "holding up under evil") in 2 Timothy 2:24.

W. L. Walker