Hunting – Hyrcanus

Hunting

hunt'-ing (tsayidh): The hunting of wild animals for sport, or for the defense of men and flocks, or for food, was common in Western Asia and Egypt, especially in early times. Some of the Egyptian and Assyrian kings were great hunters in the first sense, for example Amenhotep III (1411-1375 BC "a lion-hunting and bull-baiting Pharaoh," who boasted of having slain 76 bulls in the course of one expedition, and of having killed at one time or other 102 lions; and the Assyrian conqueror, Tiglath-pileser I (circa 1100 BC), who claimed 4 wild bulls, 14 elephants and 920 lions as the trophies of his skill and courage.

1. Nimrod and His Like:

The Biblical prototype of these heroes of war and the chase is Nimrod, "a mighty hunter before Yahweh" (Genesis 10:9), that is perhaps "a hunter who had no equal," a figure not yet clearly identifiable with any historical or mythical character in the Assyro-Bab monuments, but possibly the Gilgamesh of the great epic, who may be the hero represented on seals and reliefs as victorious over the lion (Skinner, "Gen," ICC, 208). We are reminded also of Samson's exploit at Timnah (Judges 14:5 f), but this, like David's encounter with the lion and the bear (1 Samuel 17:34 f) and Benaiah's struggle with a lion in a pit on a snowy day (2 Samuel 23:20), was an occasional incident and scarcely comes under the category of hunting. There is no evidence that hunting for sport was ever practiced by the kings of Judah and Israel. Not until the time of Herod the Great, who had a hunting establishment and was a great hunter of boars, stags, and wild asses (Josephus, BJ, I, xxi, 13), mastering as many as 40 beasts in one day, do we find a ruler of Palestine indulging in this pastime.

2. Hunting in the Old Testament:

Hunting, however, for the two other purposes mentioned above was probably as frequent among the Israelites, even after they had ceased to be nomads, as among their neighbors. We know indeed of only two personal examples, both in the patriarchal period and both outside the direct line of Israelite descent: Esau (Genesis 25:27) and Ishmael (Genesis 21:20); but there are several references and many figurative allusions to the pursuit and its methods and instruments. Hunting (inclusive of following) is mentioned in the Pentateuch in the regulation about pouring out the blood and covering it with dust (Leviticus 17:13); and there is a general reference in the proverb (Proverbs 12:27): "The slothful man roasteth not that which he took in hunting." The hunting of the lion is assumed in Ezekiel's allegory of the lioness and her two whelps (Ezekiel 19:1–9; compare Job 10:16); of the antelope or oryx (Deuteronomy 14:5; Isaiah 51:20); of the roe (Proverbs 6:5); of the partridge in the mountains (1 Samuel 26:20), and of birds in general in many passages. Hunting is probably implied in the statement about the provision of harts, gazelles and roebucks for Solomon's kitchen (1 Kings 4:23), and to some extent in the reference to the den of lions in Babylon (Daniel 6:7).

3. Methods of Hunters:

The weapons most frequently employed by hunters seem to have been bows and arrows. Isaac (Genesis 27:3) commands Esau to take his bow and quiver and procure him venison or game (compare also Isaiah 7:24; Job 41:28). This method is amply illustrated by the monuments. Ashur-nazir-pal lII (885-860 BC) and Darius (circa 500 BC), for example, are depicted shooting at lions from the chariot. Use was also made of the sword, the spear, the dart or javelin, the sling and the club (Job 41:26,Job 41:28, where the application of these weapons to hunting is implied). The larger animals were sometimes caught in a pit. The classical reference is in Ezekiel's allegory, "He was taken in their pit" (shachath, Ezekiel 19:4,Ezekiel 19:8; compare also Isaiah 24:17 f; Jeremiah 48:43 f; Psalms 35:7, etc.). The details of this mode of capture as practiced at the present day, and probably in ancient times, are described by Tristram in his Natural History of the Bible (118 f). A more elaborate method is described by Maspero in Lectures historiques (285). To make the pit-capture more effective, nets were also employed: "They spread their net over him" (Ezekiel 19:8; compare Psalms 35:7). When caught, the lion was sometimes placed in a large wooden cage (Ezekiel 19:9, cughar, the Assyrian shigaru; for the word and the thing compare SBOT, "Ezk," English, 132; Heb, 71). The lion (or any other large animal) was led about by a ring or hook (chach) inserted in the jaws or nose (2 Kings 19:28 equals Isaiah 37:29; Ezekiel 19:4,Ezekiel 19:9; Ezekiel 29:4; Ezekiel 38:4). From wild animals the brutal Assyrians transferred the custom to their human captives, as the Israelites were well aware (2 Chronicles 33:11 the Revised Version margin, Hebrew choach; for monumental illustrations compare SBOT, "Ezk," English, 132 f). Nets were also used for other animals such as the oryx or antelope (Isaiah 51:20). The Egyptian and Assyrian monuments show that dogs were employed in hunting in the ancient East, and it is not improbable that they were put to this service by the Hebrews also, but there is no clear Biblical evidence, as "greyhound" in Proverbs 30:31 is a questionable rendering. Josephus indeed (Ant., IV, viii, 9) mentions the hunting dog in a law ascribed to Moses, but the value of the allusion is uncertain.

4. Fowlers and Their Snares:

The hunting of birds or fowling is so often referred or alluded to that it must have been very widely practiced (compare Psalms 91:3; Psalms 124:7; Proverbs 1:17; Proverbs 6:5; Ecclesiastes 9:12; Amos 3:5, etc.). The only bird specifically mentioned is the partridge, said to be hunted on the mountains (1 Samuel 26:20). The method of hunting is supposed by Tristram (N H B, 225) to be that still prevalent--continual pursuit until the creature is struck down by sticks thrown along the ground--but the interpretation is uncertain. Birds were generally caught by snares or traps. Two passages are peculiarly instructive on this point: Job 18:8–10, where six words are used for such contrivances, represented respectively by "net," "toils," "gin," "snare," "noose," "trap "; and Amos 3:5, which is important enough to be cited in full: "Can a bird fall in a snare upon the earth, where no gin is set for him? shall a snare spring up from the ground, and have taken nothing at all?" The word for "snare" in this passage (pach) probably describes a net laid on the ground, perhaps a circular net like the Egyptian bird-trap represented in the Cambridge Bible, "Amos," 157. The word for "gin," usually ira in the Revised Version (British and American) "snare" (moqesh, literally, "fowling instrument") is supposed to refer either to the bait (ibid., 158) or to the catch connected with it which causes the net to collapse (Siegfried). For a full account of Egyptian modes of following which probably illustrate ancient Palestinian methods, compare Wilkinson, Popular Account, II, 178-83. The two words (moqesh and pach) mentioned above are used figuratively in many Old Testament passages, the former repeatedly of the deadly influence of Canaanitish idolatry on Israel, as in Exodus 23:33, "For if thou serve their gods, it will surely be a snare unto thee" (compare Exodus 34:12; Deuteronomy 7:16; Joshua 23:13). The use of the hawk in fowling, which is at- tested for Northern Syria by a bas-relief found in 1908 at Sakje-Geuzi, is not mentioned in the Old Testament, but there may perhaps be an allusion in Apocrypha (Baruch 3:17, "they that had their pastime with the fowls of the air"). A reference to the use of decoys has been found in Jeremiah 5:27, "a cage .... full of birds," but that is a doubtful interpretation, and in the Greek of Sirach 11:30, "As a decoy partridge in a cage, so is the heart of a proud man," but the Hebrew text of the latter is less explicit.

See FOWLER.

5. Allusions in the New Testament:

The New Testament has a few figurative allusions to hunting. The words for "catch" in Mark 12:13 and Luke 11:54 (agreuo and thereuo) mean literally, "hunt." The verb "ensnare" (pagideuo) occurs in the Gospels (Matthew 22:15), and the noun "snare" (pagis) is met with in 5 passages (Luke 21:34; Romans 11:9; 1 Timothy 3:7; 1 Timothy 6:9; 2 Timothy 2:26). Another word for "snare" (brochos), which means literally, "noose" (Revised Version margin), is used in 1 Corinthians 7:35. The words for "things that cause stumbling" and "stumble" (skandalon and skandalizo) may possibly conceal in some passages an allusion to a hunter's trap or snare. Skandalon is closely allied to skandalethron, "the stick in a trap on which the bait is placed," and is used in Septuagint for moqesh. The abundant use of imagery taken from hunting in the Bible is remarkable, in view of the comparative rarity of literal references.

LITERATURE.

In addition to the works cited in the course of the article, the article "Hunting" in DB2, HDB large and small, EB, Jewish Encyclopedia;and "Jagd" in German Bible Diets. of Guthe, Riehm2, and Wiener, and in RE3.

William Taylor Smith

Hupham

hu'-fam (chupham, "coast-inhabitant"): One of Benjamin's sons and head of the Huphamite family (Numbers 26:39).

See HUPPIM.

Huppah

hup'-a (chuppah, "protection"): The priest in charge of the 13th course as prescribed under David (1 Chronicles 24:13).

Huppim

hup'-im (chuppim, "coast-people"): Probably a variant form of HUPHAM (which see). From the only mention made of him (Genesis 46:21; 1 Chronicles 7:12,1 Chronicles 7:15), his direct descent is difficult to establish.

Hur

hur (chur):

(1) A prominent official in Israel. With Aaron he held up Moses' hands during the battle against the Amalekites (Exodus 17:10,Exodus 17:12) and assisted him as judicial head of the people during Moses' stay in the mount (Exodus 24:14).

(2) Grandfather of Bezalel, the head artificer in the construction of the Tabernacle (Exodus 31:2; Exodus 35:30; Exodus 38:22; 2 Chronicles 1:5). He is here assigned to the tribe of Judah, and in 1Ch is connected with the same by descent through Caleb (2:19,20,50; 4:1,4). Josephus (Ant., III, ii, 4; vi, 1) makes him identical with (1) and the husband of Miriam.

(3) One of the five kings of Midian slain along with Balaam when Israel avenged the "matter of Peor" upon this people (Numbers 31:8; compare Numbers 31:1,Numbers 31:2,Numbers 31:16). In Joshua 13:21 these kings are spoken of as "chiefs (nesi'im) of Midian" and "princes (necikhim) of Sihon," king of the Amorites.

(4) According to 1 Kings 4:8 the King James Version, the father of one of Solomon's twelve officers who provided food for the king's household, and whose district was the hill country of Ephraim. Here the Revised Version (British and American) has "Ben-hur," taking the Hebrew ben, "son of," as part of the proper name; and the same is true in reference to the names of four others of these officers (compare 1 Kings 4:9,1 Kings 4:10,1 Kings 4:11,1 Kings 4:13).

(5) Father of Rephaiah, who was one of the builders of the wall under Nehemiah, and ruler of half the district of Jerusalem (Nehemiah 3:9).

Benjamin Reno Downer

Hurai

hu'-ri, hu'-ra-i, hu-ra'-i (churay, "linen-weaver"): One of David's "mighty men" mentioned in 1 Chronicles 11:32 as of the brooks of Gaash, i.e. from Mt. Gash. In the parallel 2 Samuel 23:30, the orthography is Hiddai.

Huram

hu'-ram (churam, "noble-born"):

(1) Grandson of Benjamin (1 Chronicles 8:5).

(2) King of Tyre in alliance with David and Solomon. So named in 2 Chronicles 2:3,2 Chronicles 2:11,2 Chronicles 2:12; 2 Chronicles 8:2; 2 Chronicles 9:10,2 Chronicles 9:21, but elsewhere written HIRAM (which see).

(3) The Tyrian artisan who is so named in 2 Chronicles 2:13; 2 Chronicles 4:11,2 Chronicles 4:16, but elsewhere called "Hiram."

Huri

hu'-ri (churi, "linen weaver"): One of the immediate descendants of Gad, and father of Abihail, a chief man of his family (1 Chronicles 5:14).

Hurt

hurt: The term (noun and verb) represents a large number of Hebrew words, of which the chief are ra` (verb ra`a`), "evil" (Genesis 26:29; 1 Samuel 24:9; Psalms 35:4, etc.), and shebher or shebher (from shabhar), "a fracture" or "breaking" (Jeremiah 6:14; Jeremiah 8:11,Jeremiah 8:21; Jeremiah 10:19; compare Exodus 22:10,Exodus 22:14). In Greek a principal verb is adikeo, "to do injustice" (Luke 10:19; Revelation 2:11; Revelation 6:6, etc.); once the word "hurt" is used in the King James Version (Acts 27:10, story of Paul's shipwreck) for hubris, "injury" (thus the Revised Version (British and American)). In the Revised Version (British and American) "hurt" sometimes takes the place of other words in the King James Version, as "sick" (Proverbs 23:35), "breach" (Isaiah 30:26), "bruise" (Jeremiah 30:12; Nahum 3:19); sometimes, on the other hand, the word in the King James Version is exchanged in the Revised Version (British and American) for "evil" (Joshua 24:20), "harm" (Acts 18:10), or, as above, "injury" (Acts 27:10). These references sufficiently show the meaning of the word--harm, bruise, breaking, etc. In Jeremiah (ut supra) the word is used figuratively for moral disease or corruption.

James Orr

Husband

huz'-band ('ish; aner): In the Hebrew household the husband and father was the chief personage of an institution which was regarded as more than a social organism, inasmuch as the family in primitive Semitic society had a distinctively religious character and significance. It was through it that the cult of the household and tribal deities was practiced and perpetuated. The house-father, by virtue of being the family head, was priest of the household, and as such, responsible for the religious life of the family and the maintenance of the family altar. As priest he offered sacrifices to the family gods, as at first, before the centralization of worship, he did to Yahweh as the tribal or national Deity. We see this reflected in the stories of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and in the Book of Job. This goes far to explain such records as we have in Genesis 31:53; Genesis 32:9, and the exceptional reverence that was paid the paternal sepulchers (1 Samuel 20:6). Abraham was regarded as being the father of a nation. It was customary, it would seem, to assign a "father" to every known tribe and nation (Genesis 10:1–32). So the family came to play an important and constructive part in Hebrew thought and life, forming the base upon which the social structure was built, merging gradually into the wider organism of the clan or tribe, and vitally affecting at last the political and religious life of the nation itself.

The husband from the first had supreme authority over his wife, or wives, and children. In his own domain his rule was well-nigh absolute. The wife, or wives, looked up to him as their lord (Genesis 18:12). He was chief (compare Arabic sheik), and to dishonor him was a crime to be punished by death (Exodus 21:15,Exodus 21:17). He was permitted to divorce his wife with little reason, and divorces were all too common (Deuteronomy 22:13,Deuteronomy 22:19,Deuteronomy 22:28,Deuteronomy 22:29; Isaiah 50:1; Jeremiah 3:8; Jeremiah 5:8; Malachi 2:16, etc.). The wife seems to have had no redress if wronged by him. Absolute faithfulness, though required of the wife, was apparently not expected or exacted of the husband, so long as he did not violate the rights of another husband. In general among Eastern people women were lightly esteemed, as in the Japhetic nations they came to be. Plato counted a state "disorganized" "where slaves are disobedient to their masters, and wives are on equality with their husbands." "Is there a human being," asks Socrates, "with whom you talk less than with your wife?" But from the first, among the Hebrews the ideal husband trained his household in the way they should go religiously, as well as instructed them in the traditions of the family, the tribe, and the nation (Genesis 18:19; Exodus 12:26; Exodus 13:8; Deuteronomy 6:7, etc.). It was due to this, in part at least, that, in spite of the discords and evils incident to polygamy, the Hebrew household was nursery of virtue and piety to an unusual degree, and became a genuine anticipation of the ideal realized later in the Christian home (1 Corinthians 7:2 Ephesians 5:25; 1 Peter 3:7).

Used figuratively of the relation (1) between Yahweh and His people (Isaiah 54:5; Jeremiah 3:14; Hosea 2:19 f); (2) between Christ and His church (Matthew 9:15; 2 Corinthians 11:2; Ephesians 5:25; Revelation 19:7; Revelation 21:2).

George B. Eager

Husband's Brother

(yabham, "brother-in-law"; epigambreuo; Late Latin levir): He was required (Deuteronomy 25:5–10; Matthew 22:24) "to perform the duty of a husband's brother" (yibbemah); that is, if his brother, living with him on the paternal estate, died without male issue, he should take the widow to wife, and "raise up seed unto his brother," the firstborn of the new marriage inheriting the deceased brother's estate. Refusal of the duty was possible, but entailed public ceremonial disgrace and lasting reproach. This provision for a specific case modified the general law which forbade the marriage of a sister-in-law (Leviticus 18:16,Leviticus 18:18). It was a patriarchal custom (Genesis 38:1–30; Judah and Tamar), and is alluded to in Ruth 1:11–13. A related custom is found in Ruth 4:1, Boaz playing; however, the part, not of levir ("brother-in-law"), but of go`el ("redeemer"). It was at least theoretically in force in our Lord's time (Matthew 22:23–28; the question of the Sadducees concerning the resurrection). For the origin and object of this custom see FAMILY; MARRIAGE.

Philip Wendell Crannell

Husbandman; Husbandry

huz'-band-man, huz'-band-ri: Husbandman, originally a "householder" or "master of the house," is now limited in its meaning to "farmer" or "tiller of the soil." In this sense it is the correct translation of the various Biblical words: ish 'adahamah, literally, "man of the soil" (Genesis 9:20); 'ikkar, literally, "digger," "a farmer" (2 Chronicles 26:10; Jeremiah 31:24; Jeremiah 51:23; Amos 5:16; Joel 1:11); gubh, "to dig" (2 Kings 25:12); yaghabh, "to dig" (Jeremiah 52:16); georgos, "cultivator" (Matthew 21:33 John 15:1; James 5:7).

See AGRICULTURE.

It is a common practice in Palestine and Syria today for a rich man to own lands in many different parts of the country. He sets farmers over these different tracts who, with the helpers, do the plowing, planting, reaping, etc.; or he lets out his lands to farmers who pay him an annual rental or return to him a certain percentage of the crop. Much of the plain of Esdraelon, for example, was until recently owned by Beirut proprietors and farmed in this way. The writer while riding on the plain near ancient Dan, was surprised to overtake an acquaintance from Beirut (3 days' journey away), who had just dismounted at one of his farms to inspect it and to receive the annual account of his farmer. The pride with which the husbandman pointed out the abundant harvest will not be forgotten. All the difficulties of the owner with his husbandmen described by Jesus are often repeated today.

Figurative: Jesus said "I am the true vine, and my father is the husbandman" (John 15:1). He sows, cultivates, prunes and expects fruits from His church. In the parable of the Householder (Matthew 21:33), the wicked husbandmen were the Jews. The church is referred to as "God's husbandry" in 1 Corinthians 3:9 (m "tilled land").

James A. Patch

Hushah

hu'-sha (chushah, "haste"): Mentioned in 1 Chronicles 4:4 as probably an individual, a Judahite, or a family name; but may possibly be a place.

Hushai

hut'-shi, hus'-sha-i (chushay, Chousei; Josephus, Chousi): An Archite, native of Archi or Erech(?), West of Bethel on the northern border of Benjamin and southern border of Joseph (Joshua 16:2). Hushai was one of David's most faithful and wise counselors. When David was fleeing from Jerusalem and Absalom, Hushai met him, having his coat rent and earth on his head. The king persuaded him to return to Jerusalem, feign submission to Absalom, and try to defeat the counsel of Ahithophel (2 Samuel 15:32 f). Whatever Absalom decided on, Hushai was to send word to David through two young men, sons of the priests Zadok and Abiathar (2 Samuel 15:34–36). Hushai obeyed, and succeeded in persuading Absalom to adopt his counsel rather than that of Ahithophel (2 Samuel 16:16–17:14). He sent word to David of the nature of Ahithophel's counsel, and the king made good his escape that night across the Jordan. The result was the suicide of Ahithophel and the ultimate defeat and death of Absalom.

J. J. Reeve

Husham

hu'-sham (chusham, Genesis 36:34; chusham, 1 Chronicles 1:45–46, "alert"): According to the former reference, Husham was one of the kings of Edom, and according to the latter he was "of the land of the Temanites" and (1 Chronicles 1:35 f) descended from Esau.

Hushathite

hu'-shath-it, (chushathi, "a dweller in Hushah"?): The patronymic given in two forms, but probably of the same man, Sibbeccai, one of David's thirty heroes (2 Samuel 21:18; 1 Chronicles 11:29; 1 Chronicles 20:4; 1 Chronicles 27:11), or Mebunnai as named in the parallel passage (2 Samuel 23:27).

Hushim

hu'-shim (chusim, "hasters''):

(1) Family name of the children of Da (Genesis 46:23), but of form "Shuham" in Numbers 26:42.

(2) The sons of Aher of the lineage of Benjamin (1 Chronicles 7:12).

(3) One of the wives of Shaharaim, of the family of Benjamin (1 Chronicles 8:8,1 Chronicles 8:11).

Hushshathite

hush'-shath-it (chushshathi). Same as HUSHATHITE (which see), except in reduplicated form (1 Chronicles 27:11; compare 1 Chronicles 11:29, Hebrew pronunciation).

Husks

husks (keratia, i.e. "little horns," Luke 15:16): These are the pods of the carob tree (Revised Version, margin), also called the locust tree (Ceratonia siliqua). This tree flourishes all over Palestine, especially on the western mountain slopes toward the sea; by the Arabs it is called kharrub. It is dioecious, has dense, dark, evergreen foliage, glossy leaves and long, curved pods, like small horns (hence, the name). These pods which are from 4 to 9 inches in length, have a leathery case containing a pulpy substance in which the beans are imbedded; this pulp is of a pleasant, sweetish flavor and has a characteristic odor, and is much loved by children. The pods are sold in the markets, both as cattle food and for the poor, who extract by boiling them a sweetish substance like molasses. The tradition that the "locusts" of Matthew 3:4; Mark 1:6 were carob pods is preserved in the name given to them, "St. John's bread," but it has little to be said for it.

E. W. G. Masterman

Huz

huz (Genesis 22:21 the King James Version).

See UZ.

Huzzab

huz'-ab (hutstsabh, only in Nahum 2:7 the King James Version and the Revised Version margin): Its meaning is doubtful. According to Gesenius, it is a verb, Hoph. of tsabhabh, "flow," hence, to be rendered with preceding verse, "The palace is dissolved and made to flow down." Wordsworth made it Pual of natsabh, "fix": "The palace is dissolved, though established." Septuagint renders with the next word, he hupostasis apokaluphthe, "The foundation (or treasure) is uncovered." the King James Version, the Revised Version margin and the American Standard Revised Version text make it Hoph. of natsabh, "fix," hence, "It is decreed." Perhaps more probably, with the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) text and the American Revised Version margin, it is a name, or noun with the article (or the corruption of such a word), referring either to the Assyrian queen, or personifying Nineveh. No such queen is now known, but Assyriology may throw light. The "name" interpretation accords best with the general trend of the passage, which describes the discomfiture of a royal personage. BDB calls it "perhaps textual error." The Massoretic vocalization may be at fault.

Philip Wendell Crannell

Hyacinth

hi'-a-sinth (huakinthos): the Revised Version (British and American) uses this word in Revelation 9:17 for the King James Version "jacinth," with reference, not to stone, but to dark-purple color. In Revelation 21:20, where stone is meant, the Revised Version (British and American) translations "sapphire."

Hyades

hi'-a-dez.

See ASTROLOGY, sec. II, 4.

Hydaspes

hi-das'-pez (Hudaspes): A river mentioned in Judith 1:6 in connection with the Euphrates and Tigris, but otherwise unknown. It is possible there may be a confusion with the Hydaspes of India. Some have conjectured an identity with the Choaspes.

Hyena

hi-e'-na (tsabhua` (Jeremiah 12:9); Septuagint huaine (Jeremiah 12:9; Ecclesiasticus 13:18); compare Arabic dab` or dabu`, "hyaena"; compare tsebho`im, Zeboim (1 Samuel 13:18; Nehemiah 11:34); also compare tsibh`on, Zibeon (Genesis 36:2,Genesis 36:14,Genesis 36:20; 1 Chronicles 1:38); but not tsebhoyim, Zeboiim (Genesis 10:19; Genesis 14:2, etc.)): English Versions of the Bible does not contain the word "hyena," except in Ecclesiasticus 13:18, "What peace is there between the hyena and the dog? and what; peace between the rich man and the poor?" In Jeremiah 12:9, where the Hebrew has ha-`ayiT tsabhua` (the Revised Version (British and American) "a speckled bird of prey"), Septuagint has spelaion huaines, "a hyena's den," as if from a Hebrew original having me`arah, "cave," instead of ha-`ayiT, "bird." The root tsabha` may mean "to seize as prey" (compare Arabic seb`, "lion" or "rapacious animal"), or "to dip" or "to dye" (compare Arabic cabagh, "to dye"), hence, the two translations of tsabhua` as "hyena" and as "speckled" (Vulgate versicolor).

The hyena of Palestine is the striped hyena (Hyaena striata) which ranges from India to North Africa. The striped, the spotted, and the brown hyenas constitute a distinct family of the order of Carnivora, having certain peculiarities of dentition and having four toes on each foot, instead of four behind and five in front, as in most of the order. The hyena is a nocturnal animal, rarely seen though fairly abundant, powerful but cowardly, a feeder on carrion and addicted to grave-robbing. The last habit in particular has won it the abhorrence of the natives of the countries which it inhabits. In the passage cited in Ecclus, it is to be noted that it is to the hyena that the rich man is compared. The jaws and teeth of the hyena are exceedingly strong and fitted for crushing bones which have resisted the efforts of dogs and jackals. Its dens are in desolate places and are littered with fragments of skeletons. "Is my heritage unto me as a speckled bird of prey?" (Jeremiah 12:9) becomes a more striking passage if the Septuagint is followed, "Is my heritage unto me as a hyena's den?"

Shaqq-ud-Diba`, "Cleft of the hyenas," is the name of a valley north of Wadi-ul-Qelt, and Wadi-Abu-Diba` (of similar meaning) is the name of an affluent of Wadi-ul-Qelt. Either of these, or possibly Wadi-ul-Qelt itself, may be the valley of Zeboim (valley of hyenas) of 1 Samuel 13:18.

The name of Zibeon the Horite (Genesis 36:2, etc.) is more doubtfully connected with "hyena."

Alfred Ely Day

Hymenaeus

hi-men-e'-us (Humenaios, so named from Hymen, the god of marriage, 1 Timothy 1:20; 2 Timothy 2:17): A heretical teacher in Ephesus, an opponent of the apostle Paul, who in the former reference associates him with Alexander (see ALEXANDER), and in the latter, with Philetus (see PHILETUS).

1. His Career:

It is worthy of notice that in both passages where these persons are mentioned, the name of Hymeneus occurs first, showing, perhaps, that he was the leader. In the passage in 1Ti Hymeneus is included in the "some" who had put away faith and a good conscience and who had made shipwreck concerning faith. The apostle adds that he had delivered Hymeneus and Alexander unto Satan, that they might learn not to blaspheme.

2. His Denial of the Resurrection:

In the passage in 2 Tim, Hymeneus and Philetus are included among persons whose profane and vain babblings will increase unto more ungodliness, and whose word "will eat as doth a gangrene." The apostle declares that Hymeneus and Philetus rection are of the number of such people as those just described, and he adds that those two persons "concerning the truth have erred, saying that the resurrection is past already, and overthrow the faith of some." Then, for the guidance of Timothy, he goes on to say the seal upon the foundation of God is, "The Lord knoweth them that are his: and, Let every one that nameth the name of the Lord depart from unrighteousness." The inference intended is, that though Hymeneus and Philetus had named the name of Christ, they did not depart from iniquity. There is no doubt in regard to the identity of this Hymeneus with the person of the same name in 1 Tim. Accordingly, the facts mentioned in the two epistles must be placed together, namely, that though he had made a Christian profession by naming the name of Christ, yet he had not departed from iniquity, but by his profane teaching he proceeded unto more ungodliness, and that he had put away faith and a good conscience and had made shipwreck of faith.

The error, therefore, of Hymeneus and his two companions would amount to this: They taught that "the resurrection is past already," that there shall be no bodily resurrection at all, but that all that resurrection means is that the soul awakes from sin. This awakening from sin had already taken place with themselves, so they held, and therefore there could be no day in the future when the dead shall hear the voice of the Son of God and shall come forth from the grave (John 5:28).

3. Incipient Gnosticism:

This teaching of Hymeneus had been so far successful: it had "overthrown the faith of some" (2 Timothy 2:18). It is impossible to define exactly the full nature of this heresy, but what Paul says regarding it makes evident that it was a form of incipient Gnosticism. This spiritualizing of the resurrection sprang from the idea of the necessarily evil nature of all material substance. This idea immediately led to the conclusion of the essentially evil nature of the human body, and that if man is to rise to his true nature, he must rid himself of the thralldom, not of sin, but of the body. This contempt for the body led to the denial of the resurrection in its literal sense; and all that Christ had taught on the subject was explained only, in an allegorical sense, of the resurrection of the soul from sin.

4. Overthrows Faith:

Teaching of this kind is described by Paul as having effects similar to the "eating" caused by a gangrene. It is deadly; it overthrows Christian faith. If not destroyed, it would corrupt the community, for if there is no literal resurrection of the dead, then, as Paul shows in 1 Corinthians 15:1–58, Christ is not raised; and if the literal resurrection of Christ is denied, Christian believers are yet in their sins, and the Christian religion is false.

5. Delivered unto Satan:

The way in which the apostle dealt with these teachers, Hymeneus and his companions, was not merely in the renewed assertion of the truth which they denied, but also by passing sentence upon these teachers--"whom I delivered unto Satan, that they might be taught not to blaspheme." In regard to the meaning of this sentence much difficulty of interpretation exists. Some understand it to mean simple excommunication from the church. But this seems quite inadequate to exhaust the meaning of the words employed by Paul. Others take it to signify the infliction of some bodily suffering or disease. This also is quite insufficient as an explanation. It seems that a person who was delivered unto Satan was cut off from all Christian privileges, he was "put away" from the body of Christian believers, and handed over to "the Satan," the Evil One in his most distinct personality (1 Corinthians 5:2,1 Corinthians 5:5,1 Corinthians 5:13). Compare the cases of Ananias and Sapphira (Acts 5:1–42), and of Elymas (Acts 13:11).

It is important that the purpose of this terrible sentence should not be overlooked. The intention of the punishment was distinctly remedial. Both in the case of Hymenacus and Alexander, and in that of the person dealt with in 1 Corinthians 5:1–13, the intention was the attaining of an ultimate good. In 1Co it is "for the destruction of the flesh, that the spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus." Similarly, Hymeneus and Alexander are delivered unto Satan, not for their final perdition, but that they may be taught, through this terrible discipline--for such is the signification of the word which is translated "taught"--not to blaspheme. The purpose of this discipline, that they might learn not to blaspheme, shows the dreadful length of impiety and of railing at Christian truth to which Hymeneus had gone.

6. The "Perverse Things" at Ephesus:

In the history of Hymeneus and his companions, and in their bold and anti-Christian teaching which had overthrown the faith of some, we cannot fail to see the fulfillment of what Paul had said many years previously, in his farewell address to the elders of the church in Ephesus: "I know that after my departing grievous wolves shall enter in among you, not sparing the flock; and from among your own selves shall men arise, speaking perverse things, to draw away the disciples after them" (Acts 20:29 f). It was in the Ephesian church that Hymeneus and Alexander and Philetus had arisen. The gangrene-like nature of their teaching has already been described.

John Rutherfurd

Hymn

him (humnos): In Colossians 3:16; Ephesians 5:19 Paul bids his readers sing "psalms and hymns and spiritual songs." Gregory of Nyssa (4th century) distinguishes these as follows: the Psalms were accompanied by instruments, the hymns were mainly vocal, and the song, ode, was a general term comprehending both. This distinction might suggest that the psalm belonged especially to the public worship of the church, while the hymn was the production, more or less spontaneous, of the individual member. The inference is, however, inconsistent with 1 Corinthians 14:26, and it is probable that in the apostolic age, at least, the terms were used indiscriminately. Of Christian psalms or hymns we have examples in the New Testament. Luke 1:1–80 and 2 contain such hymns in the songs of Mary, Zacharias and Simeon. The Apocalypse is studded with hymns or odes, many of them quite general in character, and probably borrowed or adapted from Jewish books of praise. In the Epistles of Paul, especially the later ones, fragments of hymns seem to be quoted. Lightfoot detects one in Ephesians 5:14, and others readily suggest themselves.

It is probable that the hymn mentioned as having been sung by Jesus and the disciples after the Passover (Matthew 26:30; Mark 14:26) was the second part of the Hallel, i.e. Psalms 115-118, and the hymns of Paul and Silas were most likely also taken from the Psalter. But the practice of interpolating and altering Jewish non-canonical books, like the Psalter of Solomon and the recently discovered Odes of Solomon, shows that the early Christians adopted for devotional purposes the rich store of sacred poetry possessed by their nation. For the music to which these psalms, etc., were sung, see MUSIC; SONG.

James Millar

Hypocrisy; Hyprocrite

hi-pok'-ri-si, hip'-o-krit (choneph, chaneph; hupokrisis, hupokrites):

(1) "Hypocrisy" occurs only once in the Old Testament as the translation of choneph (Isaiah 32:6, the Revised Version (British and American) "profaneness"); chaneph, from which it is derived, means properly "to cover," "to hide," or "becloud," hence, to pollute, to be polluted or defiled, to make profane, to seduce; as a substantive it is translated "hypocrite" (Job 8:13; Job 13:16; Job 15:34; Job 17:8; Job 20:5; Job 27:8; Job 34:30; Job 36:13, in all which instances the Revised Version (British and American) has "godless man," "godless men," "godless"; Proverbs 11:9, the Revised Version (British and American) "the godless man"; Isaiah 9:17, the Revised Version (British and American) "profane"; Isaiah 33:14, the Revised Version (British and American) "the godless ones"); it is rendered "hypocritical," in Psalms 35:16; Isaiah 10:6, the Revised Version (British and American) "profane."

(2) "Hypocrisy," "hypocrite" are frequent in the New Testament, chiefly in Christ's discourses in the Gospels. The word hupokrisis (primarily, "an answer," "response") meant generally, in classical Greek, stageplaying, acting, the histrionic art; hence, it came to mean acting a part in life, etc. We find hupokrisis in this sense in 2 Macc 6:25, the Revised Version (British and American) "dissimulation," and hupokrinomai, "to pretend," "to feign," etc. Ecclesiasticus 1:29; 32:15; 33:2, translated "hypocrite"; 2 Macc 5:25, "pretending peace," the Revised Version (British and American) "playing the man of peace"; 6:21, the Revised Version (British and American) "to make as if." Hupokrites (literally, "an actor") is the Septuagint for chaneph (Job 34:30; Job 36:13), equivalent to bad, wicked, godless, which is perhaps included in some of our Lord's uses of the words, e.g. Matthew 23:27 f, "full of hypocrisy and iniquity" (compare 23:29 f; 24:51); but, in general, the meaning is acting a part, false, deceptive and deceived, formally and outwardly religious and good, but inwardly insincere and unrighteous; the hypocrite may come to deceive himself as well as others, but "the hypocrite's hope shall perish" (Job 8:13 the King James Version). On no class did our Lord pronounce such severe condemnation as on the hypocrites of His day.

"Hypocrisy" (hupokrisis) occurs in Matthew 23:28; Mark 12:15; Luke 12:1; 1 Timothy 4:2; 1 Peter 2:1 (in Galatians 2:13 it is rendered "dissimulation"); "hypocrite" (hupokrites), Matthew 6:2,Matthew 6:5,Matthew 6:16; Matthew 7:5; Matthew 15:7; Matthew 22:18; Matthew 23:13,Matthew 23:15,Matthew 23:23,Matthew 23:25 ff,29; 24:51; Mark 7:6; Luke 12:56; Luke 13:15; in James 3:17, anupokritos is "without hypocrisy," so the Revised Version (British and American), Romans 12:9 ("unfeigned," 2 Corinthians 6:6; 1 Timothy 1:5; 2 Timothy 1:5; 1 Peter 1:22).

W. L. Walker

Hyrcanus

her-ka'-nus (Hurkanos): "Son of Tobias, a man of great dignity," who had a large sum of money deposited in the Temple of Jerusalem when Heliodorus was sent to confiscate it in 187 BC (2 Macc 3:11 ff). Opinions differ as to the identity of this Hyrcanus. with the grandson of Tobias whose birth and history are related at considerable length by Josephus (Ant., XII, iv, 6 ff), or with another of the same name mentioned in Ant, XIII, viii, 4.

See ASMONEANS; MACCABAEUS.