Israel, Religion Of (continued) – Izziah

Israel, Religion Of (continued)

In Alexandria a friendly exchange of ideas between Hellenism and Judaism was brought about. Here the Old Testament was translated into the Greek. This translation, known as the Septuagint (Septuagint), shows as yet but few signs of the Greek spirit; rather, a pronounced influence of legal and ritualistic Judaism. On the other hand, apologetical opposition to Hellenism appears to a more marked degree, among others, in the apocryphal work known as "Wisdom of Solomon," in which we find a positive defense of wisdom as the principle of revelation over against the Epicurean world wisdom of Hellenism. In doing this, the book leans on Platonism and Stoicism. The chokhmah, or wisdom of the old Jewish literature, has been Hellenized. Philo goes still farther in adapting Judaism to Greek taste and to humanism. A more liberal conception of inspiration also appears in the reception of contemporaneous literary products into the Old Testament Canon, even of some books which had originally been written in the Greek language. The means observed in adapting national Hebraism to Hellenistic universalism was the allegorical method of interpretation, which Philo practiced extensively and which then passed over to the Christian church Fathers of the Alexandrian school. This school constitutes the opposite extreme to the rabbinical, which clung most tenaciously to the letter of the sacred texts.

(6) Apocalyptic Literature.

A unique phenomenon at the close of the Biblical and in the earliest post-Biblical period is, finally, the APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE (which see). Since the days of the Maccabees we find the custom in certain Jewish circles, by using the old prophecies and adapting them to the events of the times, of drawing up a systematic picture of the future. The authorship of these writings was usually ascribed to one of the ancient saints, e.g. to Enoch, or Abraham, or Moses, or Elijah, or Solomon, or Baruch, or Ezra, or others. The model of these Apocalypses is the Book of Dnl, which, on the basis of older visions, in the times of the oppression by Antiochus Epiphanes, pictures, in grand simplicity, the development of the history of the world down to the final triumph of the Kingdom of God over the kingdoms of the world.

III. Conclusion: Characteristic Features of the Religion of Israel.

When we consider this whole development, it cannot be denied that the religion of Israel passed through many changes. It grew and purified and spiritualized itself out of its own inherent strength; but it also suffered many relapses, when hindering and corrupting influence gained the upper hand. But it received from without not only degenerating influences, but also much that inspired and developed its growth. Its original and native strength also shows itself in this, that without losing its real character it was able to appropriate to itself elements of truth from without and assimilate these.

1. The Living God:

If we ask what the specific and unique character of this religion was, by which it was distinguished from all other religions of antiquity, and by reason of which it alone was capable of producing from itself the highest revelation in Christ, it must be answered that its uniqueness lies, most of all, in its conception of God and of Divine things, and of God's relation to the world. The term "monotheism" but inadequately expresses this peculiarity; for monotheistic tendencies are found also in other nations, and in Israel monotheism often shows itself in a strongly corrupted form. The advantage of Israel lies in its close contact with the living God. From the beginning of Israel's history a strictly personal God gave testimony of Himself to different personalities with a decision which demanded absolute submission; and, in addition, this was a holy God, who elevated mankind above Nature and above themselves, a God who stood in the most absolute contrast to all that was impure or sinful, but at the same time was wonderful in His grace and His mercy to the sinner. This direct revelation of God to specially chosen bearers of the Divine truth goes through the entire history of Israel. Through this factor this religion was being constantly purified and unfolded further. The Israelites learned to conceive God in a more spiritual, correct, and universal manner, the more they advanced in experience and culture. But this God did not thereby become a mere abstract being, separated from mankind, as was the case with so many nations. He always continued to be a living God who takes an active part in the lives of men. We need notice only those prophets who describe the greatness of God in the grandest way, such as Hosea, Isaiah, Deutero-Isaiah, who depict also the personal life of God in the boldest way through anthropomorphisms.

2. The Relation of Man to This God:

In agreement with this, too, we find that this religion demands the personal subjection of men to God. As was the case with all the religions of antiquity, that of the Old Testament, of Man to too, was originally rather a tribal and a national religion than one of the individual. This brought with it the demand for the external observance of the tribal customs in the name of religion. However, the traditional customs and legal ordinances had already been sifted and purified by Moses. And, as a matter of necessity, in a religion of such a pronounced personal nature, the personal relation of the individual to God must become more and more a matter of importance. This idea became deeper and more spiritual in the course of time and developed into a pure love for God. It did not prevent this religion from becoming petrified, even during the Exile, when the doctrines and the cult were most correctly observed. But the vital kernels found embedded in the revelation of God constantly proved their power of rejuvenation. And at that very time when the petrified legalism of Pharisaism attained its most pronounced development, the most perfect fruit of this religion came forth from the old stem of the history of Israel, namely Christ, who unfolded Judaism and converted it into the religion of salvation for the entire world.

LITERATURE.

Of the literature on the religion of Israel we may yet make particular mention of the following: The textbooks on Old Testament Theology by Oehler, 1891 (also the English translation), of Dillmann, 1895. The Kuenen-Wellhausen school is represented by Kuenen, De Godsdienst van Israel, 1869 (also the English translation); Stade, Biblische Theologie des A T, 1905; Marti, Theologie des A T, 1903; Smend, Lehrbuch der A T Religionsgeschichte, 1899; compare also the works of Robertson Smith, especially his lectures on The Religion of the Semites. Against this radical school, see, in addition to the work of Dillmann, James Robertson, Early Religion of Israel, 1893. On the subject of Semitism in general, S.I. Curtiss, Ursemitische Religion im Volksleben des heutigen Orients, 1903 (also the English translation); Baethgen, Beltrage zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, 1880; M.J. Lagrange, Etudes sur les religions semitiques, 1905. The relation of Israel to the Assyrian and Babylonian religions is discussed by Hugo Winckler in several works; compare also Fritz Hommel, Alttestamentliche Ueberlieferungen, 1897 (also the English translation); Sayce, The Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments, 1895; Alfred Jerermias, Das A Tim Lichte des alten Orients, 1906; a good brief summary is found in Sellin, Die A T Religion im Rahmen der andern Altorientalischen, 1908. Full details are given in Kautzsch, "Religion of Israel," in HDB, extra vol, 1904. For the last centuries before Christ see particularly, Schurer, Geschichte des judischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 1907 (also English Translation). The modern Jewish standpoint is represented by Montefiore, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the History of the Ancient Hebrews, 1892.

C. von Orelli

Israelite; Israelitish

iz'-ra-el-it, iz'-rael-it-ish: Belonging to the tribes of ISRAEL (which see). Occurs 4 times in the New Testament: of Nathanael (John 1:47); used by Paul (Romans 9:4; Romans 11:1; 2 Corinthians 11:22).

Issachar

is'-a-kar (yissa(se)khar; Septuagint, Swete Issachar; Tischendorf, Issachar, so also in the New Testament, Tregelles, and Westcott and Hort, The New Testament in Greek):

(1) The 9th son of Jacob, the 5th borne to him by Leah (Genesis 30:17 f).

1. The Name:

His birth is in this passage connected with the strange story of Reuben and his mandrakes, and the name given him is apparently conceived as derived from 'ish sakhar, "a hired workman." There is a play upon the name in this sense in Genesis 49:15, "He bowed his shoulder to bear, and became a servant under taskwork." Wellhausen (Textder Buch. Sam., 95) thinks that the second element of the name may denote a deity; and Sokar, an Egyptian god, has been suggested. The name in that case would mean "worshipper of Sokar." Practically nothing is preserved of the personal history of this patriarch beyond his share in the common actions of the sons of Jacob. Four sons were born to him before Jacob's family removed to Egypt (Genesis 46:13). In that land he died and was buried.

2. The Tribe:

At Sinai the tribe numbered 54,000 men of war over 20 years of age (Numbers 1:29). At the end of the wanderings the numbers had grown to 64,300 (Numbers 26:25). In the days of David, the Chronicler puts the figures at 87,000 (1 Chronicles 7:5). See NUMBERS. The place of Issachar in the desert-march was with the standard of the tribe of Judah (along with Zebulun) on the East side of the tabernacle (Numbers 2:5), this group forming the van of the host (Numbers 10:14 f). The rabbis say that this standard was of 3 colors, sardine, topaz and carbuncle, on which were inscribed the names of the 3 tribes, bearing the figure of a lion's whelp (Tg, pseudo. Jon. on Numbers 2:3). The captain of the tribe was Nethanel ben-Zuar (Numbers 1:8, etc.). Later this place was held by Igal ben-Joseph, the tribal representative among the spies (Numbers 13:7). The prince chosen from Issachar to assist in the division of the land was Paltiel ben-Azzan (Numbers 34:26). The position of Issachar at the strange ceremony near Shechem was on Mt. Gerizim, "to bless the people" (Deuteronomy 27:12).

3. The Tribal Territory:

Sixteen cities of Issachar are mentioned in Joshua 19:17 ff, but the only indications of boundaries are Tabor in the North and Jordan in the East. We gather elsewhere that the territory of this tribe marched on the North with Zebulun and Naphtali (19:11,33); on the West with Manasseh and possibly Asher (17:10); and on the South with Manasseh (17:11). It does not seem to have had any point of contact with the sea. The portion of Issachar, therefore, included the plain of Esdraelon, Tabor, the hill of Moreh, and the slopes East to the Jordan. The fortresses along the South edge of the plain were held by Manasseh. Tola, a man of Issachar, held Shamir, a stronghold in Mt. Ephraim (Judges 10:1). To Manasseh was given Beth-shean with her "towns" (Joshua 17:11). No reliable line can be drawn for the South border. The district thus indicated was small; but it embraced some of the most fruitful land in Palestine. By the very riches of the soil Issachar was tempted. "He saw a resting-place that it was good, and the land that it was pleasant; and he bowed his shoulder to bear, and became a servant under taskwork" (Genesis 49:15). "The mountain" in Deuteronomy 33:19 may possibly be Tabor, on which, most likely, there was an ancient sanctuary and place of pilgrimage. This would certainly be associated with a market, in which Issachar and Zebulun, the adjoining tribes, would be able to enrich themselves by trade with the pilgrims from afar. Issachar took part in the battle with Sisera (Judges 5:15). To Israel Issachar gave one judge, Tola (Judges 10:1), and two kings, Baasha and his son (1 Kings 15:27, etc.).

4. Men of Issachar:

Of the 200 "heads" of the men of Issachar who came to David at Hebron it is said that they were "men that had understanding of the times, to know what Israel ought to do" (1 Chronicles 12:32). According to the Targum, this meant that they knew how to ascertain the periods of the sun and moon, the intercalation of months, the dates of solemn feasts, and could interpret the signs of the times. A company from Issachar came to the celebration of the Passover when it was restored by Hezekiah (2 Chronicles 30:18). Issachar has a portion assigned to him in Ezekiel's ideal division of the land (Ezekiel 48:25); and he appears also in the list in Re (7:7).

(2) A Korahite doorkeeper, the 7th son of Obededom (1 Chronicles 26:5).

W. Ewing

Isshiah

is-shi'-a (yishshiyahu, "Yah exists"; the King James Version Ishiah):

(1) Mentioned among David's heroes, a greatgrandson of Tola (1 Chronicles 7:3).

(2) Mentioned among the men who came to David at Ziklag (1 Chronicles 12:6; the King James Version "Jesiah").

(3) A member of the priesthood of the house of Rehabiah (1 Chronicles 24:21; the King James Version "Jesiah").

(4) Another Levitical priest of the house of Uzziel (1 Chronicles 23:20; 1 Chronicles 24:25).

Isshijah

is-shi'-ja (yishshiyah, "Yah lends"; the King James Version Ishijah): A man of the household of Harim, named among those who, at Ezra's command, were induced to put away their "strange wives" (Ezra 10:31). Also called "Aseas" (1 Esdras 9:32).

Issue

ish'-u:

(1) (moledheth, tse'etsa'im; sperma, "seed"): Offspring, descendants (Genesis 48:6; Isaiah 22:24; Matthew 22:25 the King James Version).

(2) (zirmah; yatsa' (verb); rhusis): A gushing of fluid (semen, Ezekiel 23:20; water, 47:8; blood, Luke 8:43). See next article.

Issue (Of Blood)

(zobh, zubh; rhusis, haimorrhoos): When used as a description of a bodily affection the word signifies:

(1) A discharge, the consequence of uncleanness and sin (Leviticus 15:2 Numbers 5:2). As such it was one of the judgments which were to afflict the family of Joab (2 Samuel 3:29);

(2) a hemorrhage, either natural (Leviticus 12:7, where the word used is maqor, literally, a "fountain"), or the consequence of disease (Matthew 9:20; Mark 5:25; Luke 8:43).

Issues

ish'-uz (tots'-oth, literally, "outgoings"):

(1) Ways of escape (Psalms 68:20 the King James Version);

(2) free moral choices (Proverbs 4:23).

Istalcurus

is-tal-ku'-rus (Istalkouros): 1 Esdras 8:40, corresponding to Zabbud in Ezra 8:14. In Swete's text the name is Istakalkos.

Isuah

is'-u-a. See ISHVAH.

Isui

is'-u-i.

See ISHVI.

Isvah

is'-va.

See ISHVAH.

Itala, Version

it'-a-la.

See LATIN VERSION, THE OLD; VULGATE.

Italian Band

i-tal'-yan.

See BAND.

Italy

it'-a-li (Italia): At first confined as a name to the extreme southern part of the Italian peninsula in the region now called Calabria, whence its application was gradually extended. In Greek usage of the 5th century BC, the name was applied to the coasts as far as Metapontum and Posidonia, being synonymous with Oenotria. The Oenotrians are represented as having assumed the name of Italians (Itali) from a legendary ruler Italus (Dionysius, i.12,35; Vergil, Aen. i.533). The extension of Roman authority seems to have given this name an ever-widening application, since it was used to designate their allies generally. As early as the time of Polybius the name Italy was sometimes employed as an appellation for all the country between the two seas (Tyrrhenian and Adriatic) and from the foot of the Alps to the Sicilian Straits (Polyb. i.6; ii.14; iii.39,54), although Cisalpine Gaul was not placed on a footing of complete equality with the peninsula as regards administration until shortly after the death of Julius Caesar. From the time of Augustus the term was used in practically its modern sense (Nissen, Italische Landeskunde, I, 57-87).

The name Italy occurs 3 times in the New Testament: Acts 18:2, Aquila "lately come from Italy," because of the expulsion of the Jews from Rome under Claudius; Acts 27:1, the decision that Paul be sent to Italy; Hebrews 13:24, salutation from those "of Italy." The adjective form is found in the appellation, "Italian band" (cobors Italica, Acts 10:1).

The history of ancient Italy, in so far as it falls within the scope of the present work, is treated under ROME (which see).

George H. Allen

Itch

(charec; psora): Only in Deuteronomy 28:27, where it probably refers to the parasitic skin disease of that name which is very common in Palestine. It is due to a small mite, Sarcoptes scabiei, which makes burrows in the skin and sometimes causes extensive crusts or scabs, attended with a severe itching. It is very easily communicated from person to person by contact, and can be cured only by destruction of the parasite. This disease disqualified its victims for the priesthood (Leviticus 21:20).

Ithai

ith'-a-i.

See ITTAI.

Ithamar

ith'-a-mar ('ithamar, "land" or "island of palms": Gesenius; or "father of Tamar," 'i, being perhaps for 'abhi: Cook in Encyclopedia Biblica--though both derivations are uncertain): The 4th son of Aaron (Exodus 6:23; Exodus 28:1; 1 Chronicles 6:3), Eleazar being the 3rd son, Nadab and Abihu the 1st and 2nd sons. While Nadab and Abihu were prematurely cut off for offering strange fire before the Lord (Leviticus 10:1,Leviticus 10:2; Numbers 3:4; Numbers 26:61), and Eleazar was appointed chief of the tribe of Levi (Exodus 6:23,Exodus 6:25) and ultimately succeeded Aaron (Exodus 28:1), Ithamar was made the treasurer of the offerings for the Tabernacle (Exodus 38:21), and superintendent of the Gershonites and Merarites in the service of the Tabernacle (Numbers 4:28,Numbers 4:33). In the time of Eli the high-priesthood had come to be in his family, but how, and whether before Eli's day or first in Eli's person, is not told and need not be conjectured. W. R. Smith in Encyclopedia Biblica (art. "Eli"), on the strength of 1 Samuel 2:27,1 Samuel 2:28, holds that the priesthood was originally in Eli's line; but the words "the house of thy father" do not necessarily mean only the house of Ithamar, but may, and most probably do, refer to Aaron and his descendants, of whom Ithamar was one. Nor does the cutting off of Eli's family from the priesthood and the setting in their place of "a faithful priest," who should do everything according to Yahweh's will and walk before Yahweh's anointed forever, find its complete fulfillment in the deposition of Abiathar or Ahimelech, his son, and the installation of Zadok in the time of Solomon (1 Kings 2:35; 1 Chronicles 29:22; see ZADOK). A descendant of Ithamar, Daniel by name, is mentioned among the exiles who returned from Babylon (Ezra 8:2).

T. Whitelaw

Ithiel

ith'-i-el ('ithi'el, "God is"):

(1) A son of Jeshaiah of the tribe of Benjamin, mentioned among the inhabitants of Jerusalem in Nehemiah's day (Nehemiah 11:7).

(2) The name is perhaps also found in the oracle of Agur (Proverbs 30:1).

See ITHIEL AND UCAL.

Ithiel And Ucal

('ithi'el we'ukhal): Names of the two men to whom Agur the son of Jakeh spoke his words (Proverbs 30:1). The purport of introducing these persons is strange and obscure; the margin proposes therefore, by the use of a different pointing, to read the verse, "The man said, I have wearied myself, O God, I have wearied myself, O God, and am consumed," thus doing away with the proper names; a reading which corresponds not inaptly with the tone of the succeeding verses.

See AGUR; PROVERBS, THE BOOK OF, II, 6.

John Franklin Genung

Ithmah

ith'-ma (yithmah, "purity"): A citizen of the country of the Moabites, David's deadly enemies, yet mentioned as one of the king's heroes (1 Chronicles 11:46).

Ithnan

ith'-nan (yithnan): A town in the South of Judah mentioned along with Hazor and Ziph (Joshua 15:23), apparently the "Ethnan" of Jerome (Onom 118 13). Not identified.

Ithra

ith'-ra (yithra', "abundance"): The father of Amasa, commanding general in the rebel army of Absalom. It seems that his mother was Abigail, a sister or half-sister of King David (1 Chronicles 2:17). She is called the sister of Zeruiah, Joab's mother (2 Samuel 17:25). In this same passage Ithra is called an "Israelite," but in 1 Chronicles 2:17; 1 Kings 2:5,1 Kings 2:32, we read: "Jether the Ishmaelite."

Ithran

ith'-ran (yithran, "excellent"):

(1) A descendant of Seir the Horite, son of Dishon (Genesis 36:26; 1 Chronicles 1:41).

(2) One of the sons of Zophah of the tribe of Asher (1 Chronicles 7:37).

Ithream

ith'-re-am (yithre`am, "residue of the people"): The 6th son born to David at Hebron. His mother's name was Eglah (2 Samuel 3:5; 1 Chronicles 3:3).

Ithrite

ith'-rit (yithri, "excellence," "preeminence"): A family in Israel, whose home was Kiriath-jearim (1 Chronicles 2:53). Among the 37 heroes of David, two are mentioned who belonged to this family, Ira and Gareb (2 Samuel 23:38; 1 Chronicles 11:40).

Ittah-Kazin

it-a-ka'-zin (`ittah qatsin): Joshua 19:13 the King James Version for Eth-kazin. Ittah is correctly Eth with He locale, meaning "toward Eth."

Ittai

it'-a-i, it'-i ('ittay, 'ithay):

(1) A Gittite or native of Gath, one of David's chief captains and most faithful friends during the rebellion of Absalom (2 Samuel 15:11–22; 2 Samuel 18:2,2 Samuel 18:4,2 Samuel 18:12). The narrative reveals David's chivalrous and unselfish spirit in time of trouble, as well as the most self-sacrificing loyalty on the part of Ittai. He seems to have but recently left his native city and joined David's army through personal attachment to the king. David rapidly promoted him. Hearing of Absalom's rebellion and approach to Jerusalem, he flees with David. The latter remonstrates, urges him to go back and join Absalom, as he is a foreigner and in exile. His interests are in the capital and with the king; there is no reason why he should be a fugitive and perhaps suffer the loss of everything; it would be better for him, with his band of men, to put himself and them at the service of Absalom, the new king. "Mercy and truth be with thee," says David in his magnanimity. Ittai, with a double oath, absolutely refuses to go back, but will stand by David until the last. Remonstrance being useless, the monarch orders him across the river, doubtless glad that he had such a doughty warrior and faithful friend by his side. On mustering his hosts to meet Absalom, David makes Ittai a chief captain with the intrepid Joab and Abishai. He doubtless did his part in the battle, and as nothing more is said of him it is possible that he fell in the fight.

(2) A Benjamite, one of David's 30 mighty men (2 Samuel 23:29; 1 Chronicles 11:31, "Ithai").

J. J. Reeve

Ituraea

it-u-re'-a (Itouraia):

1. The Word an Adjective:

The term occurs only once in Scripture, in the definition of Philip's territory: tes Itouraias kai Trachonitidos choras, which the King James Version renders: "of Ituraea and of the region of Trachonitis," and Revised Version: "the region of Ituraea and Trachonitis" (Luke 3:1). Sir W.M. Ramsay has given reasons for the belief that this word was certainly never used as a noun by any writer before the time of Eusebius (Expos, 1894, IX, 51 ff, 143 ff, 288 ff). It must be taken as an adjective indicating the country occupied by the Itureans.

2. The Itureans:

The descent of the Itureans must probably be traced to Jetur, son of Ishmael (Genesis 25:15), whose progeny were clearly numbered among the Arabian nomads. According to Eupolemus (circa 150 BC), quoted by Eusebius (Praep. Evang. IX, 30), they were associated with the Nabateans, Moabites and Ammonites against whom David warred on the East of the Jordan. They are often mentioned by Latin writers; their skill in archery seems greatly to have impressed the Romans. They were skillful archers (Caesar, Bell. Afr. 20); a lawless (Strabo, xvi.2,10) and predatory people (Cicero, Philipp. ii.112). In the Latin inscriptions Iturean soldiers have Syrian names (HJP, I, ii, 326). They would therefore be the most northerly of the confederates opposed to David (supra), and their country may naturally be sought in the neighborhood of Mt. Hermon.

3. Indications of Their Territory:

There is nothing to show when they moved from the desert to this district. Aristobulus made war against the Itureans, compelled many of them to be circumcised, and added a great part of their territory to Judea, 140 BC (Ant., XIII, xi, 3). Dio Cassius calls Lysanias "king of the Itureans" (xlix.32), and from him Zenodorus leased land which included Ulatha and Paneas, 25 BC. The capital of Lysanias was Chalcis, and he ruled over the land from Damascus to the sea. Josephus speaks of Soemus as a tetrarch in Lebanon (Vita, 11); while Tacitus calls him governor of the Itureans (Ann. xii.23). The country of Zenodorus, lying between Trachonitis and Galilee, and including Paneas and Ulatha, Augustus bestowed on Herod, 20 BC (Ant., XV, x, 3). In defining the tetrarchy of Philip, Josephus names Batanea, Trachonitis and Auranitis, but says nothing of the Itureans (Ant., XVII, xi, 4; BJ, II, vi, 3). Paneas and Ulatha were doubtless included, and this may have been Iturean territory (HJP, I, ii, 333). It seems probable, therefore, that the Itureans dwelt mainly in the mountains, and in the broad valley of Coele-Syria; but they may also have occupied the district to the Southeast of Hermon, the modern Jedur. It is not possible to define more closely the Iturean country; indeed it is not clear whether Luke intended to indicate two separate parts of the dominion of Philip, or used names which to some extent overlapped.

It has been suggested that the name Jedur may be derived from the Hebrew yeTur, and so be equivalent to Ituraea. But the derivation is impossible.

W. Ewing

Ivah

i'-va.

See IVVAH.

Ivory

i'-vo-ri (1) shen, "tooth" (translated "ivory," 1 Kings 10:18; 1 Kings 22:39; 2 Chronicles 9:17; Psalms 45:8; Song of Songs 5:14; Song of Songs 7:4; Ezekiel 27:6,Ezekiel 27:15; Amos 3:15; Amos 6:4);

(2) shenhabbim; Septuagint odontes elephdntinoi, "elephants' teeth" (1 Kings 10:22; 2 Chronicles 9:21);

(3) elephantinos, "of ivory" (Revelation 18:12)):

Shen occurs often, meaning "tooth" of man or beast. In the passages cited it is translated in English Versions of the Bible "ivory" (of "crag," 1 Samuel 14:4,1 Samuel 14:5; "cliff," Job 39:28 twice; "flesh-hook of three teeth," 1 Samuel 2:13). Shenhabbim is thought to be a contracted form of shen ha-'ibbim, i.e. ha, the article, and 'ibbim, plural of 'ibbah or 'ibba'; compare Egyptian ab, ebu, "elephant," and compare Latin ebur, "ivory" (see Liddell and Scott, under the word elephas). On the other hand, it may be a question whether -bim is not a singular form connected with the Arabic fil, "elephant." If the word for "elephant" is not contained in shenhabbim, it occurs nowhere in the Hebrew Bible.

Ivory was probably obtained, as now, mainly from the African elephant. It was rare and expensive. It is mentioned in connection with the magnificence of Solomon (1 Kings 10:18,1 Kings 10:22), being brought by the ships of Tarshish (2 Chronicles 9:17,2 Chronicles 9:21). An "ivory house" of Ahab is mentioned in 1 Kings 22:39. It is mentioned among the luxuries of Israel in the denunciations of Amos (3:15; 6:4). It occurs in the figurative language of Psalms 45:8; Song of Songs 5:14; Song of Songs 7:4. It is used for ornamentation of the ships of the Tyrians (Ezekiel 27:6), who obtain it with ebony through the men of Dedan (27:15). It is among the merchandise of Babylon (Revelation 18:12).

We do not learn of the use of elephants in war until a few centuries before the Christian era. In 1 Macc 8:6, there is a reference to the defeat of Antiochus the Great, "having an hundred and twenty elephants," by Scipio Africanus in 190 BC. 1 Macc 1:17 speaks of the invasion of Egypt by Antiochus Epiphanes with an army in which there were elephants. 1 Macc 6:28-47 has a detailed account of a battle between Antiochus Eupator and Judas Maccabeus at Bethsura (Beth-zur). There were 32 elephants. Upon the "beasts" theria) there were "strong towers of wood"; "There were also upon every one two and thirty strong men, that fought upon them, beside the Indian that ruled him."

In Job 40:15, the King James Version margin has for "behemoth," "the elephant, as some think."

Alfred Ely Day

Ivory, Tower Of

(mighdal hashen): In Song of Songs 7:4 the neck of the Shulammite is compared in whiteness and stateliness to a (or the) tower of ivory. The definite article may suggest that the comparison is with some actual tower in or near Jerusalem; but more probably the language is simply a figure.

Ivvah

iv'-a (`iwwah; Aba (= Ava), Aua, 2 Kings 18:34, Oudou, 2 Kings 19:13, apparently due to a misreading): The name is wanting in the Massoretic Text and Septuagint of Isaiah 36:19.

Ivvah was a city apparently conquered by the Assyrians, and is mentioned by them, in the verses quoted, with Hamath and Arpad, Sepharvaim and Hena. It has been assimilated with the Avva of 2 Kings 17:24 as one of the places whence Sargon brought captives to Samaria, and identified with Hit on the Euphrates, between Anah and Ramadieh, but this seems improbable, as is also the suggestion that it is Emma, the modern `Imm, between Antioch and Aleppo. Hommel (Expository Times, April, 1898, 330) upholds the view that Hena and Ivvah, or, as he prefers to read, Avvah, are not places at all, but the names of the two chief gods of Hamath, Arpad and Sepharvaim. This would be consistent with 2 Kings 18:34; but 19:13: "Where is the king .... of Sepharvaim, of Hena, and Ivvah?" and 17:31, where the gods of Sepharvaim are stated to be Adrammelech and Anammelech, raise serious difficulties. In all probability, the identification of Ivvah depends upon the correct localization of the twofold Sepharvaim, of which Hena and Ivvah may have been the names. The identification of Sepharvaim with the Babylonian Sip(p)ar is now practically abandoned.

See SEPHARVAIM.

T. G. Pinches

Ivy

i'-vi (kissos): The only mention of the word in all the sacred writings is in 2 Macc 6:7 in connection with the oppression of the Jews by Antiochus Epiphanes: "On the day of the king's birth every month they were brought by bitter constraint to eat of the sacrifices; and when the feast of Bacchus (Dionysus) was kept, the Jews were compelled to go in procession to Dionysus, carrying ivy," this plant (Hedera helix) being sacred to the Greek god of wine and of the culture of the vine (compare Eur. Bacchae, passim). It was of ivy or of pine that the "corruptible crown" of the famous Isthmian games was made (1 Corinthians 9:25).

J. Hutchison

Iyar

e-yar'.

See IYYAR.

Iye-Abarim

i-ye-ab'-a-rim (`iye ha-`abharim, "the heaps of the Abarim"; the King James Version Ije-abarim; in Numbers 21:11 the Septuagint reads Codex Vaticanus, Chalglei): A place in the journeyings of Israel named after Oboth, said to be "in the wilderness which is before Moab, toward the sunrising" (Numbers 21:11), "in the border of Moab" (Numbers 33:44). The indications of position here given are not sufficient to guide to any identification, and, so far, nothing has been discovered in the district to help us. Called simply "Iyim" (the King James Version "Iim") in Numbers 33:45.

Iyim

i'-yim (iyim, "heaps"--the form of which, `iye, is the construct):

(1) A short form of the name Iye-abarim (Numbers 33:45).

(2) A town in the territory of Judah (Joshua 15:29; English Versions of the Bible wrongly "Iim"). It lay in the extreme South, "toward the border of Edom." It is not identified.

Iyyar

e-yar' (iyar; Iar): The 2nd month of the Jewish year, corresponding to May. It is not mentioned in the Bible.

See CALENDAR.

Izehar

iz'-e-har, i'-ze-har (Numbers 3:19 the King James Version).

See IZHAR.

Izhar

iz'-har (yitshar, "the shining one"):

(1) The father of Korah (Numbers 16:1), descended from a Kohathite Levite of this name, whose descendants formed a family, in the tribe of Levi (Exodus 6:18,Exodus 6:21; Numbers 3:19,Numbers 3:27; 1 Chronicles 6:18,1 Chronicles 6:38).

(2) A descendant of Judah, whose mother's name was Helah. the American Revised Version margin gives the name Zohar (1 Chronicles 4:7).

Izharites

iz'-har-its (yitshari): The descendants of Izhar, son of Kohath, and grandson of Levi (Numbers 3:19,Numbers 3:27). In David's reign some of these were "over the treasures of the house of Yahweh" (1 Chronicles 26:23), others "were for the outward business over Israel, for officers and judges" (ibid., 26:29).

Izliah; Jezliah

iz-li'-a (yizli'ah, "Yah delivers"; the King James Version): A son of Elpaal, of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chronicles 8:18).

Izrahiah

iz-ra-hi'-a (yizrachyah, "Yah appears, or shines"):

(1) A descendant of Issachar, grandson of Tola, only son of Uzzi (1 Chronicles 7:3).

(2) The leader of the singing at the purification of the people, on the occasion of Nehemiah's reformation; here rendered "Jezrahiah" (Nehemiah 12:42).

Izrahite

iz'-ra-hit (yizrach, "rising, shining"): Shamhuth, the captain of the 5th monthly course (1 Chronicles 27:8), is called an "Izrahite." The name may be derived from the town or family of Izrah, but more likely is a corruption of the word "Zerahite," descendant of Zerah of Judah.

Izri

iz'-ri (yitsri, "creator," "former"): A man of the "sons of Jeduthun," leader of the fourth band of musicians, who served in the sanctuary (1 Chronicles 25:11). Identical with Zeri (25:3).

Izziah

iz-i'-a (yizziyah, "Yah unites"; the King James Version Jeziah): One of the faithful Jews who put away their foreign wives. He belonged to the family of Parosh (Ezra 10:25; 1 Esdras 9:26, "Ieddias").