Manna – Mark, John

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Manna

man'-a (man; manna): The Hebrew man is probably derived, as Ebers suggests, from the Egyptian mennu, "food." In , we have a suggested source of the name, "They said one to another, What is it?" i.e. manhu, which also means, "It is manna" (see margin).

1. Old Testament References:

This substance is described as occurring in flakes or small round grains, literally, "hoax frost"; it fell with the dew () and appeared when the dew left the ground (); "It was like coriander seed, white; and the taste of it was like wafers made with honey" (). In , its taste is described "as the taste of fresh oil," margin "cakes baked with oil." "And the children of Israel did eat the manna forty years, until they came .... unto the borders of the land of Canaan" (). It ceased the day after they ate the produce of the land, unleavened cakes and parched grain, in the plains of Jericho (). Although an important article of diet, it was by no means the sole one as seems implied in ; there are plenty of references (e.g. ; ; ; ,,; ; ; ; , f, etc.) which show that they had other food besides. The food was gathered every morning, "every man according to his eating: and when the sun waxed hot, it melted" (); a portion of the previous day's gathering bred worms and stank if kept (); on the 6th day a double amount was gathered, the Sabbath portion being miraculously preserved (). A pot--a golden one ()--with an omer of manna was "laid up before Yahweh" in the tabernacle (). Manna is referred to in . It is described poetically as "food from heaven" and "bread of the mighty" ( f); as "bread of heaven" (); and as "angels' bread" (2 Esdras 1:19; The Wisdom of Solomon 16:20).

2. New Testament References:

In , our Lord frequently refers to "the manna" or "bread from heaven" as typical of Himself. Paul () refers to it as "spiritual food," and in we read, "To him that overcometh, to him will I give of the hidden manna."

Manna, as might be expected, figures largely in rabbinical literature. It was, it is said, adapted to the taste of each individual who could by wishing taste in the manna anything he desired (compare The Wisdom of Solomon 16:21). Manna is reserved as the future food of the righteous (compare ), for which purpose it is ground in a mill situated in the third heaven (Chag 12b; Tan. Beshallach 22).

3. Natural Explanations:

No substance is known which in any degree satisfies all the requirements of the Scriptural references, but several travelers in the wilderness have reported phenomena which suggest some of the features of the miraculous manna.

(1) In the Peninsula of Sinai, on the route of the children of Israel, a species of tamarisk, named in consequence by Ebers Tammaris mannifera, is found to exude a sweet, honey-like substance where its bark is pierced by an insect, Gossyparia mannifera. It collects upon the twigs and falls to the ground. The Arabs who gather it to sell to pilgrims call it mann-es-sama, "heavenly manna"; it is white at first but turns yellow; in the early morning it is of the consistency of wax but when the sun is hot it disappears. This substance occurs only after mid-summer and for a month or two at most.

(2) A second proposal is to identify manna with a lichen--Lecanora esculenta and allied species--which grows in the Arabian and other deserts upon the limestone. The older masses become detached and are rolled about by the wind. When swept together by sudden rain storms in the rainy season they may collect in large heaps. This lichen has been used by the Arabs in time of need for making bread. It is a quite reasonable form of nourishment in the desert, especially when eaten with the sugary manna from the trees.

E. W. G. Masterman

Manner; Manners

man'-er, man'-erz (dabhar, derekh, mishpaT; ethos, houtos):

1. As Used in the Old Testament:

"Manner" (probably from manus, "the hand," mode of handling things, or acting) is in the Bible in general equivalent

(1) to way, custom, habit, etc.,

(2) to kind or sort.

There are some special senses, however, and archaic usages. It is frequently the translation of dabhar, "speaking," "word," "thing" (, "That be far from thee to do after this manner" (i.e. in this way); , "On this manner shall ye speak unto Esau" (in this way); , "After this manner (in this way) did thy servant to me"; , "every manner of trespass" (every kind, sort, or way); ; , bis); also of derekh, "way" (, "after the manner of all the earth (way); the King James Version "(the bread) is in a manner common"; "manner" here might be taken as equivalent to "way" or "measure," but the passage is a difficult one and the text uncertain; the Revised Version (British and American) omits "manner," and in the text makes the reference to be to the journey, not to the bread, but in the margin it has "common (bread)"; ,, after the manner of Egypt" (after the way or fate of Egypt); so also ; , the manner of Beer-sheba liveth" the Revised Version (British and American) "the way," margin "manner, the reference here being to the religious way, or manner of worship); of mishpaT, "judgment," "ordinance," hence, also "manner" or "custom" (; ; , "what manner of man" (sort or kind); the King James Version; ; , "after the manners (the Revised Version (British and American) "ordinances") of the nations"); torah, "instruction," "law," is also translated "manner" (, "(is) this the manner (margin "law") of man, O Lord God?" the Revised Version (British and American) "and this (too) after the manner of men, O Lord Yahweh," margin "and is this the law of man, O Lord Yahweh?"). Other words are: 'orach, "path," "custom" (); dobher, "leading," "pasture" (compare "sheep-walk," "sheep-fold"); , "Then shall the lambs feed after their manner," the Revised Version (British and American) "as in their pasture" (in , the same word is translated the King James Version "fold," the Revised Version (British and American) "pasture"); demuth, "likeness" (); dath, "law," "sentence" (); chuqqah, "statute," "custom" () in the King James Version. In "with the manner" is supplied to "taken" (in adultery). "Manner" here is an old law-French phrase, "a thief taken with the mainour"--that is, with the thing stolen upon him in manu (in his hand) (Blackstone, Comm., IV, xxiii), the Revised Version (British and American) "in the act" (compare "in the very act"); gam, "also" is translated () "in like manner," the Revised Version (British and American) "also."

2. As Used in the Apocrypha:

In Apocrypha, 2 Macc 4:13 the King James Version, we have "increase of heathenish manners," the Revised Version (British and American) "an extreme of Greek fashions"; 2 Macc 6:9, the "manners of the Gentiles," the Revised Version (British and American) "the Greek rites"; in 2 Esdras 9:19, the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American), "manners" appears in the sense of "morals"; compare , the Revised Version (British and American) "Evil companionships corrupt good morals."

3. As Used in the New Testament:

In the New Testament various words and phrases are rendered by "manner"; we have ethos, "custom," "usage," "manner" (; , the Revised Version (British and American) "custom"); kata to eiothos (, the Revised Version (British and American) "as his custom was"); tropos a "turning," "manner," "way" (); hon tropon, "in which manner" (); houtos, "thus," "so," "accordingly," is "after this manner," "in like manner" (; the King James Version); in , "after this manner" stands in the King James Version for "by their hands," the Revised Version (British and American) "thus"; pos (), "after what manner"; agoge, "course of life" (, the Revised Version (British and American) "conduct"); biosis, "mode of life" (); in , we have manners in the moral sense, "Evil communications corrupt good manners," the American Standard Revised Version "Evil companionships corrupt good morals." is interesting because of diversities of rendering; the King James Version has "suffered he their manners in the wilderness," margin "etropophoresen, perhaps for etrophophoresen, bore, or fed them as a nurse beareth or feedeth her child, (2 Macc 7:27) according to Septuagint, and so Chrysostom"; the English Revised Version text, same as the King James Version margin "Many ancient authorities read `bear he them as a nursing father in the wilderness.' See "; the American Standard Revised Version (text) "as a nursing-father bare he them in the wilderness," margin "Many ancient authorities read `Suffered he their manners in the wilderness.' See ." The Greek words differ only by a single letter, and authorities are pretty equally divided.

Among other changes the Revised Version (British and American) has frequently "ordinance" for "manner" (, etc.) and "custom" (; ; , etc.); "manner of" is introduced (, etc.); "manner of" and "manner" omitted (; , etc.); "what manner of house" for "where is the house" (); "manner of life" for "conversation" (; ); "after the manner of men" for "as a man" (; ); "how to inquire concerning these things" () for "of such manner of questions"; "in an unworthy manner," the American Standard Revised Version, for "unworthily" (); "who" for "what manner of man" (; , "who then is this?"); in , "Ye know not what manner of spirit ye are of" is omitted, with the margin "Some ancient authorities add and said, Ye know not what manner of spirit ye are of."

W, L. Walker

Manoah

ma-no'-a (manoach, "rest"): A man of Zorah and of the family of the Danites. Manoah was the father of Samson, and his life-story is but imperfectly told in the history of the conception, birth and early life of his son. No children had been born to Manoah and his wife, and the latter was considered barren (). Finally it was revealed to her by an angel of the Lord that she would conceive and bear a child. She was cautioned against strong drink and "unclean" food, for her child was to be born and reared a Nazirite to the end that he might save Israel out of the hands of the Philistines (). That Manoah was a devout man seems certain in view of the fact that, upon hearing of the angel's visit, he offered a prayer for the angel's return, in order that he and his wife might be instructed as to the proper care of the child to be born (). The request was granted and the angel repeated the visit and the instructions (). Manoah with true hospitality would have the guest remain and partake of food. The angel refused, but commanded a sacrifice unto Yahweh. When Manoah had prepared the sacrifice and lit it on the altar, the angel ascended in the flame from the altar and appeared no more (). The child was born according to the promise and was named Samson. Manoah and his wife appear twice in the narrative of Samson's early life--once as they protestingly accompanied him to sue for the hand of a Philistine woman of Timnah in marriage, and again when they went with him to Timnab for the wedding.

Josephus richly embellishes this Scriptural narrative concerning Manoah, but offers no further light upon the occupation or character of Manoah. At the death of Samson, his brothers went down to Gaza and brought back the body and buried it by the side of Manoah in the family tomb near Zorah (). In Samson Agonistes Milton gains dramatic effect by having Manoah survive Samson and in deep sorrow assist at his burial.

C. E. Schenk

Manservant

man'sur-vant (`ebhedh): A male slave; usually coupled with maidservant or female slave (; ; ; ; ).

See SERVANT; SLAVE.

Mansion

man'-shun (mone, "abode"): In , the word is used in the plural: "In my Father's house are many mansions," the Revised Version margin "abiding places." The ideas conveyed are those of abundance of room, and permanence of habitation, in the heavenly world.

Manslayer

man'-sla-er (meratstseach, from ratsach (,); androphonos ()): A term employed with reference to both premeditated and accidental or justifiable killing. In the latter case, an asylum was granted (,) until the death of the high priest, after which the slayer was allowed to "return into the land of his possession" (). The cases in which the manslayer was to be held clearly immune from the punishment imposed on willful killing were:

(1) death by a blow in a sudden quarrel ();

(2) death by anything thrown at random (,);

(3) death by the blade of an axe flying from the handle ().

Among the cases in which one would be held responsible for the death of another, is to be counted the neglectful act of building a house without a parapet ().

Manslaughter, as a modern legal term, is employed to distinguish unpremeditated killing from coldblooded murder, but formerly (2 Esdras 1:26) it was used in a more general sense.

See MURDER.

Frank E. Hirsch

Manstealing

man'-stel-ing.

See CRIME, under "Kidnapping"; PUNISHMENT.

Mantelet

man'-tel-et, man'-t'-l-et, mant'-let ().

See SIEGE, 4, (d).

Mantle

man'-t'-l: Used 5 times of Elijah's mantle ('addereth, ,; ,,), which was probably of hair. Found in plural once (), where it (ma`ataphoth) is an upper wide tunic with sleeves (kethoneth).

See DRESS; KERCHIEF.

Manuscripts

man'-u-skripts: In the broadest sense manuscripts include all handwritten records as distinguished from printed records. In a narrower sense they are handwritten codices, rolls and folded documents, as distinguished from printed books on the one hand and inscriptions, or engraved documents, on the other. More loosely, but commonly, the term is used as synonym of the codex.

The Hebrew and Greek manuscripts of the Old Testament and New Testament, respectively, form the primary sources for establishing the text or true original words of the respective authors. The subordinate sources, versions and quotations have also their text problem, and manuscripts of the versions and of the church Fathers, and other ancient writers who refer to Biblical matters, play the same part in establishing the true words of the version or the writer that the Hebrew and Greek manuscripts play in establishing the original of Scripture. For discussion of the textual aspects, see the articles on TEXT AND MANUSCRIPTS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, TEXT OF THE OLD TESTAMENT, on VERSIONS, and especially the SEPTUAGINT. For the material, writing instruments, form of manuscripts, etc., see BOOK; and especially the literature under WRITING.

E. C. Richardson

Manuscripts Of The New Testament

See TEXT AND MANUSCRIPTS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

Manuscripts Of The Old Testament

See LANGUAGES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.

Maoch

ma'-ok (ma`okh, "oppressed," "bruised"): The same as Maacah (). The father of that Achish, king of Gath, with whom David and his 600 sojourned under fear of Saul's treachery ().

Maon; Maonites

ma'-on, ma'-on-its, ma-o'-nits (ma`on; Septuagint: Codex Vaticanus Maor, Maan; Codex Alexandrinus Maon):

(1) A town in the mountain of Judah named along with Carmel and Ziph (). It appears again as the home of Nabal, the great flockmaster (). In the genealogical list of , Maon stands as the "son" of Shammai and the "father" of Beth-zur (2:44,45). This evidently means that Shammai was the founder of Maon. About a mile South of el-Karmil, the ancient Carmel, lies Tell Ma`in. This may be confidently identified with Maon, the radicals of the names being the same. It suits the requirements of the narratives in other respects, being near to Carmel, while the surrounding wilderness is still used as the wide pasture land for multitudinous flocks. In this district, the wilderness of Maon, David was hiding when his whereabouts was betrayed to Saul by the men of Ziph ( f), and only a timely raid by the Philistines delivered him out of that monarch's hands ().

(2) (Madiam): Maon is named along with the Zidonians and Amalek as having at some time, not mentioned, oppressed Israel (). The Septuagint "Midian" has been accepted by some scholars as restoring the original text, since, otherwise, the Midianites remain unmentioned. But the Maonites are evidently identical with the Meunim of (Revised Version), the pastoral people destroyed by Hezekiah. In the King James Version, instead of "other beside the Ammonites" we must read "some of the Meunim," as associated with the Ammonites in the battle with Jehoshaphat. Against them also Uzziah was helped of God (). They are included among the inhabitants of Mt. Seir (,), so that an Edomite tribe is intended. It is natural to connect them with Ma`an, a place on the great pilgrimage road, and now a station on the Damascus-Hejaz Railway, to the Southeast of Petra. It undoubtedly represents an ancient stronghold.

The Maonites appear in the lists of those who returned from exile (, the King James Version "Mehunim," the Revised Version (British and American) "Meunim"; , "Meunim"). These may possibly be the descendants of prisoners taken in the wars of Jehoshaphat and Uzziah, to whom menial tasks may have been appointed in the temple services.

W. Ewing

Mar

mar: "To mar" means "to destroy," "to disfigure," "to damage." , "They mar my path" (the Revised Version margin "they break up"); , "and destroyed their vine" (the King James Version "and marred their vine"); compare ; ; ; .

Mara

ma'-ra, mar'-a (marah, "bitter"): The term which Naomi applies to herself on her return from Moab to her native country (). Changed beyond recognition, she creates astonishment among her former acquaintances, who ask, "Is this Naomi?" She replies, "Call me not Naomi" (i.e. "pleasant" or "sweet"), but "call me Mara" (i.e. "bitter"). In the light of her bitter experience, and her present pitiable plight, the old name has become peculiarly inappropriate.

Marah

ma'-ra, mar'-a (marah, "bitter"): The first camp of the Israelites after the passage of the Red Sea (; f). The name is derived from the bitterness of the brackish water. Moses cast a tree into the waters which were thus made sweet ().

See WANDERINGS OF ISRAEL.

Maralah

mar'-a-la (mar`alah; Septuagint: Codex Vaticanus Maragelda; Codex Alexandrinus Marila): A place on the western border of Zebulun (). Peshitta renders Ramath ta`le', "height of the fox." It is not identified.

Maranatha

mar-a-nath'-a, mar-an-a'-tha (from Aramaic words, marana' 'athah, "Our Lord cometh, or will come"; according to some, "has come"; to others, "Come!" an invitation for his speedy reappearance (compare ); maranatha, or maran atha): Used in connection with anathema, "accursed" (), but has no necessary connection therewith. It was used by early Christians to add solemn emphasis to previous statement, injunction or adjuration, and seems to have become a sort of watchword; possibly forming part of an early liturgy.

Marble

mar'-b'-l (shayish, shesh, 'abhne shayish, "stones of marble" (); ritspath bahat wa-shesh we-dhar we-cochareth, "a pavement of red, and white, and yellow, and black marble," or, according to the margin, "a pavement of porphyry, and white marble, and alabaster, and stone of blue color" (); `ammudhe shesh, "pillars of marble" (; Song of Songs 5:15); compare shesh, the King James Version margin "silk" or the Revised Version (British and American) "fine linen" (; , etc.); shoshannim, "lilies" (Song of Songs 2:16, etc.), apparently from a root signifying "white"; marmaros, "marble" ()): Marble is properly crystalline limestone, usually pure white or veined with black, the former being in demand for statuary, while the latter is used in architecture, especially for floors and pillars. True marble is not found in Palestine, but is obtained from Greece or Italy. Much of the stone described as marble is non-crystalline limestone capable of being smoothed and polished. White or yellow stone of this character is abundant in Palestine. Non-crystalline rocks of other colors are also sometimes called marble. In the passage from Esther cited above (compare margin), it is a question whether the reference is to marble and other stones or to marble of different colors. In , "marble stones" are mentioned among the materials brought together by David for the building of the temple. In , pillars and a pavement of marble are features of the palace of Ahasuerus. In Song of Songs 5:15, the various parts of the body of the "beloved" are likened to gold, beryl, ivory, sapphire, and marble. In , marble occurs in the list of the merchandise of Babylon. All these references imply a costly stone, and therefore probably one imported from other countries, and make it likely that true crystalline marble is meant.

Alfred Ely Day

March; Marches

march, march'-iz.

See ARMY; WAR.

Marcheshvan

mar-chesh'-van.

See TIME.

Marcion, Gospel Of

mar'-shun.

See APOCRYPHAL GOSPELS.

Marcus

mar'-kus.

See MARK, JOHN.

Mardocheus

mar-do-ke'-us (Mardochaios):

(1) One of the Jewish leaders who accompanied Zerubbabel on the return from Babylon to Judah (1 Esdras 5:8, where it stands for "Mordecai" of and ).

(2) Another form of Mordecai, the uncle of Esther (Additions to Esther 10:4; 11:2,12; 12:1,4 ff; 16:13).

Mare

mar

(1) cucah, "steed," the King James Version "company of horses"; Septuagint he hippos, "mare" (Song of Songs 1:9);

(2) bene ha-rammakhim, "bred of the stud," the King James Version and the Revised Version margin "young dromedaries" (); compare Arabic ramakat, "mare"): The word "mare" does not occur in English Versions of the Bible, but in Song of Songs 1:9 we find cucah, the feminine of cuc, "horse," and in , bene ha-rammakhim is by some translated "sons of mares."

See CAMEL; HORSE.

Mareshah

ma-re'-sha (mareshah; Septuagint: Codex Vaticanus Bathesar; Codex Alexandrinus Maresa): A town in the Shephelah of Judah named with Keilah and Achzib (). It occupied such a position that Rehoboam thought well to fortify it for the protection of Jerusalem (). In the valley of Zephathah at Mareshah, Asa overwhelmed Zerah the Ethiopian and his army, pursuing them as far as Gezer (). From Mareshah came Eliezer the prophet who denounced disaster upon the commercial copartnery of Jehoshaphat and Ahaziah (). The place is mentioned in Mic (). Mareshah was plundered and burned by Judas Maccabeus (Ant., XII, viii, 6; 1 Macc 5:66 the Revised Version margin). Hither Gorgias escaped, having been rescued from the hands of Dositheus by a Thracian horseman (2 Macc 12:35). It was taken by John Hyrcanus, who allowed the inhabitants to remain on condition that they adopt circumcision and submit to the Jewish law. This they did; and later John avenged an injustice done to Mareshah by the Samaritans. It is then described as "a colony of Jews" (Ant., XIII, ix, 1; x, 2). The city was treated with favor by Pompey (XIV, iv, 4). When the Parthians invaded Judea in support of Antigonus they demolished Mareshah (xiii, 9).

According to Eusebius, Onomasticon, Mareshah was 2 Roman miles from Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin). Until recently it was thought that Khirbet Mir`ash, where the old name lingers, not far Southwest of Beit Jibrin, represented the ancient city. The work of Dr. Bliss, however ("Excavations in Palestine," PEF), shows that it must be located at Tell Sandachannah, about a mile South of Beit Jibrin. A series of remarkable tombs was discovered here. From we may perhaps gather that Hebron was colonized by the men of Mareshah.

W. Ewing

Marimoth

mar'-i-moth, mar'-i-moth: An ancestor of Esdras (Ezra) (2 Esdras 1:2), identical with Meraioth (). In 1 Esdras 8:2, it appears also as "Memeroth" (the King James Version "Meremoth").

Mariner

mar'-i-ner.

See SHIPS AND BOATS, II, 2, (3); III, 2.

Marisa

mar'-i-sa (Marisa): The Greek form of MARESHAH (which see) in 2 Macc 12:35.

Marish

mar'-ish (gebhe'; helos): An old form of "marsh," found in the King James Version, the English Revised Version (the American Standard Revised Version "marsh"). Some (not all) editions of the King James Version Apocrypha have retained this same spelling in 1 Macc 9:42,45 (the Revised Version (British and American) "marsh").

Mark

mark: In the King James Version this word is used 22 times as a noun and 26 times as a predicate. In the former case it is represented by 5 Hebrew and 3 Greek words; in the latter by 11 Hebrew and 2 Greek words. As a noun it is purely a physical term, gaining almost a technical significance from the "mark" put upon Cain ( the King James Version); the stigmata of Christ in Paul's body (); the "mark of the beast" ().

As a verb it is almost exclusively a mental process: e.g. "to be attentive," "understand ": bin ( the King James Version), rightly rendered in the Revised Version (British and American) "consider"; shith, "Mark ye well her bulwarks" (), i.e. turn the mind to, notice, regard; shamar, i.e. observe, keep in view; so , "Mark the perfect man"; compare the King James Version. This becomes a unique expression in , where Eli, noticing the movement of Hannah's lips in prayer, is said to have "marked her mouth." Jesus "marked" how invited guests chose out (epecho, i.e. "observed") the chief seats (); so skopeo (; ), "Mark them," i.e. look at, signifying keen mental attention, i.e. scrutinize, observe carefully. The only exceptions to this mental signification of the verb are two verses in the Old Testament: , "He marketh it out with a pencil" ("red ochre," the King James Version "line"), and "with the compasses," where the verb is ta'ar, "to delineate," "mark out"; , "Thine iniquity is marked (katham, "cut (i.e. engraved)) before me," signifying the deep and ineradicable nature of sin. It may also be rendered "written," as in indelible hieroglyphics.

As a noun the term "mark" may signify, according to its various Hebrew and Greek originals, a sign, "a target" an object of assault, a brand or stigma cut or burnt in the flesh, a goal or end in view, a stamp or imprinted or engraved sign.

(1) 'oth, "a sign": the King James Version, "The Lord set a mark upon Cain" (the American Standard Revised Version "appointed a sign"). It is impossible to tell the nature of this sign. Delitzsch thinks that the rabbins were mistaken in regarding it as a mark upon Cain's body. He considers it rather "a certain sign which protected him from vengeance," the continuance of his life being necessary for the preservation of the race. It was thus, as the Hebrew indicates, the token of a covenant which God made with Cain that his life would be spared.

(2) mattara', "an aim," hence, a mark to shoot at. Jonathan arranged to shoot arrows as at a mark, for a sign to David (); Job felt himself to be a target for the Divine arrows, i.e. for the Divinely decreed sufferings which wounded him and which he was called to endure (); so Jeremiah, "He hath set me as a mark for the arrow" (); closely akin to this is miphga`, an object of attack (), where Job in bitterness of soul feels that God has become his enemy, and says, `Why hast thou made me the mark of hostile attack?'; "set me as a mark for thee."

See TARGET.

(3) taw, "mark" (,). In Ezekiel's vision of the destruction of the wicked, the mark to be set upon the forehead of the righteous, at Yahweh's command, was, as in the case of the blood sprinkled on the door-posts of the Israelites (,), for their protection. As the servants of God (,)--the elect--were kept from harm by being sealed with the seal of the living God in their foreheads, so the man clothed in linen, with a writer's inkhorn by his side, was told to mark upon their foreheads those whom God would save from judgment by His sheltering grace. Taw also appears () for the attesting mark made to a document (the Revised Version (British and American) "signature," margin "mark").

The equivalent Hebrew letter taw ("t") in the Phoenician alphabet and on the coins of the Maccabees had the form of a cross (T). In oriental synods it was used as a signature by bishops who could not write. The cross, as a sign of ownership, was burnt upon the necks or thighs of horses and camels. It may have been the "mark" set upon the forehead of the righteous in Ezekiel's vision.

(4) qa`aqa`, "a stigma" cut or burnt. The Israelites were forbidden () to follow the custom of other oriental and heathen nations in cutting, disfiguring or branding their bodies.

The specific prohibition "not to print any marks upon" themselves evidently has reference to the custom of tattooing common among savage tribes, and in vogue among both men and women of the lower orders in Arabia, Egypt, and many other lands. It was intended to cultivate reverence for and a sense of the sacredness of the human body, as God's creation, known in the Christian era as the temple of the Holy Spirit.

Mark, John

mark, John (Ioannes) represents his Jewish, Mark (Markos) his Roman name. Why the latter was assumed we do not know.

1. Name and Family: Perhaps the aorist participle in may be intended to intimate that it dated from the time when, in company with Barnabas and Saul, he turned to service in the great Gentilecity of Antioch. Possibly it was the badge of Roman citizenship, as in the case of Paul. The standing of the family would be quite consistent with such a supposition.

His mother's name was Mary (). The home is spoken of as hers. The father was probably dead. The description of the house (with its large room and porch) and the mention of the Greek slave, suggest a family of wealth. They were probably among the many zealous Jews who, having become rich in the great world outside, retired to Jerusalem, the center of their nation and faith. Mark was "cousin" to Barnabas of Cyprus () who also seems to have been a man of means (). Possibly Cyprus was also Mark's former home.

2. His History as Known from the New Testament:

When first mentioned, Mark and his mother are already Christians (44 AD). He had been converted through Peter's personal influence () and had already won a large place in the esteem of the brethren, as is shown by his being chosen to accompany Barnabas and Saul to Antioch, a little later. The home was a resort for Christians, so that Mark had every opportunity to become acquainted with other leaders such as James and John, and James the brother of the Lord. It was perhaps from the latter James that he learned the incident of which Peter would be less likely to mention.

His kinship with Barnabas, knowledge of Christian history and teaching, and proved efficiency account for his being taken along on the first missionary journey as "minister" (huperetes) to Barnabas and Saul (). Just what that term implies is not clear. Chase (HDB) conjectures the meaning to be that he had been huperetes, "attendant" or chazzan in the synagogue (compare ), and was known as such an official. Wright (English translation, February, 1910) suggests that he was to render in newly founded churches a teaching service similar to that of the synagogue chazzan. Hackett thought that the kai of this verse implies that he was to be doing the same kind of work as Barnabas and Saul and so to be their "helper" in preaching and teaching. The more common view has been (Meyer, Swete, et al.) that he was to perform "personal service not evangelistic," "official service but not of the menial kind"--to be a sort of business agent. The view that he was to be a teacher, a catechist for converts, seems to fit best all the facts.

Why did he turn back from the work ()? Not because of homesickness, or anxiety for his mother's safety, or home duties, or the desire to rejoin Peter, or fear of the perils incident to the journey, but rather because he objected to the offer of salvation to the Gentiles on condition of faith alone. There are hints that Mark's family, like Paul's, were Hebrews of the Hebrews, and it is not without significance that in both verses (,) he is given only his Hebrew name. The terms of Paul's remonstrance are very strong (), and we know that nothing stirred Paul's feelings more deeply than this very question. The explanation of it all may be found in what happened at Paphos when the Roman Sergius Paulus became a believer. At that time Paul (the change of name is here noted by Luke) stepped to the front, and henceforth, with the exception of 15:12,25, where naturally enough the old order is maintained, Luke speaks of Paul and Barnabas, not Barnabas and Saul. We must remember that, at that time, Paul stood almost alone in his conviction. Barnabas, even later than that, had misgivings (). Perhaps, too, Mark was less able than Barnabas himself to see the latter take second place.

We hear nothing further of Mark until the beginning of the second missionary journey 2 years later, when Paul's unwillingness to take him with them led to the rupture between Paul and Barnabas and to the mission of Barnabas and Mark to Cyprus (). He is here called Mark, and in that quiet way Luke may indicate his own conviction that Mark's mind had changed on the great question, as indeed his willingness to accompany Paul might suggest. He had learned from the discussions in the council at Jerusalem and from subsequent events at Antioch.

About 11 years elapse before we hear of him again ( ). He is at Rome with Paul. The breach is healed. He is now one of the faithful few among Jewish Christians who stand by Paul. He is Paul's honored "fellowworker" and a great "comfort" to him.

The Colossian passage may imply a contemplated visit by Mark to Asia Minor. It may be that it was carried out, that he met Peter and went with him to Babylon. In the apostle sends Mark's greeting along with that of the church in Babylon. Thence Mark returns to Asia Minor, and in Paul asks Timothy, who is at Ephesus, to come to him, pick up Mark by the way, and bring him along. In that connection Paul pays Mark his final tribute; he is "useful for ministering" (euchrestos eis diakonian), so useful that his ministry is a joy to the veteran's heart.

3. His History as Known from Other Sources:

The most important and reliable tradition is that he was the close attendant and interpreter of Peter, and has given us in the Gospel that bears his name account of Peter's teaching. For that comradeship the New Testament facts furnish a basis, and the gaps in the New Testament history leave plenty of room. An examination of the tradition will be found in MARK, THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO (which see).

Other traditions add but little that is reliable. It is said that Mark had been a priest, and that after becoming a Christian he amputated a finger to disqualify himself for that service. Hence, the nickname kolobo-daktulos, which, however, is sometimes otherwise explained. He is represented as having remained in Cyprus until after the death of Barnabas (who was living in 57 AD according to f) and then to have gone to Alexandria, founded the church there, become its first bishop and there died (or was marthyred) in the 8th year of Nero (62-63). They add that in 815 AD Venetian soldiers stole his remains from Alexandria and placed them under the church of Mark at Venice.

LITERATURE.

Chase, HDB, III, 245 ff; Rae, DCG, II, 119 f; Harnack, Encyclopedia Brit; Zahn, Introduction to the New Testament, II, 427-56; Lindsay, Salmond, Morison and Swete in their Comms.

J. H. Farmer

The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, ed. James Orr (1915). Public domain. Text from the CrossWire Bible Society.