Stranger And Sojourner (In The Old Testament) – Sun, Horses Of The

Stranger And Sojourner (In The Old Testament)

stranj'-er:

I. THE GER

1. Legal provisions

(1) Principles

(2) Rules

2. Relation to Sacrifice and Ritual

3. Historical Circumstances

II. THE TOSHABH

III. THE NOKHRI OR BEN NEKHAR

1. Marriage

2. Exclusion of Some Races from the Assembly

IV. THE ZAR

Four different Hebrew words must be considered separately:

(1) ger, the American Standard Revised Version "sojourner" or "stranger";

(2) toshabh, the American Standard Revised Version "sojourner";

(3) nokhri, ben nekhar, the American Standard Revised Version "foreigner";

(4) zar, the American Standard Revised Version "stranger."

I. The Ger.

This word with its kindred verb is applied with slightly varying meanings to anyone who resides in a country or a town of which he is not a full native land-owning citizen; e.g., the word is used of the patriarchs in Palestine, the Israelites in Egypt, the Levites dwelling among the Israelites (Deuteronomy 18:6; Judges 17:7, etc.), the Ephraimite in Gibeah (Judges 19:16). It is also particularly used of free aliens residing among the Israelites, and it is with the position of such that this article deals. This position is absolutely unparalleled in early legal systems (A. H. Post, Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz, I, 448, note 3), which are usually far from favorable to strangers.

1. Legal Provisions:

(1) Principles.

The dominant principles of the legislation are most succinctly given in two passages: He "loveth the ger in giving him food and raiment" (Deuteronomy 10:18); "And if a ger sojourn with thee (variant "you") in your land, ye shall not do him wrong. The ger that sojourneth with you shall be unto you as the home-born among you, and thou shalt love him as thyself; for ye were gerim in the land of Egypt" (Leviticus 19:33 f). This treatment of the stranger is based partly on historic recollection, partly on the duty of the Israelite to his God. Because the ger would be at a natural disadvantage through his alienage, he becomes one of the favorites of a legislation that gives special protection to the weak and helpless.

(2) Rules.

In nationality the freeman followed his father, so that the son of a ger and an Israelitess was himself a ger (Leviticus 24:10–22). Special care was to be taken to do him no judicial wrong (Deuteronomy 1:16; Deuteronomy 27:19). In what may roughly be called criminal law it was enacted that the same rules should apply to gerim as to natives (Leviticus 18:26, which is due to the conception that certain abominations defile a land; Leviticus 20:2, where the motive is also religious; Leviticus 24:10–22; see SBL, 84 ff; Numbers 35:15). A free Israelite who became his slave was subject to redemption by a relative at any time on payment of the fair price (Leviticus 25:47). This passage and Deuteronomy 28:43 contemplate the possibility of a stranger's becoming wealthy, but by far the greater number of the legal provisions regard him as probably poor. Thus provision is made for him to participate in tithes (Deuteronomy 14:29; Deuteronomy 26:12), gleanings of various sorts and forgotten sheaves (Leviticus 19:10; Leviticus 23:22; Deuteronomy 24:19,Deuteronomy 24:20,Deuteronomy 24:21), and poor hired servants were not to be oppressed (Deuteronomy 24:14).

2. Relation to Sacrifice and Ritual:

Nearly all the main holy days apply to the ger. He was to rest on the Sabbath (Exodus 20:10; Exodus 23:12, etc.), to rejoice on Weeks and Tabernacles (Deuteronomy 16:1–22), to observe the Day of Atonement (Leviticus 16:29), to have no leaven on the Festival of Unleavened Bread (Exodus 12:19). But he could not keep the Passover unless he underwent circumcision (Exodus 12:48). He could not eat blood at any rate during the wilderness period (Leviticus 17:10–12), and for that period, but not thereafter, he was probihited from eating that which died of itself (Leviticus 17:15; Deuteronomy 14:21) under pain of being unclean until the even. He could offer sacrifices (Leviticus 17:8 Leviticus 22:18; Numbers 15:14 f), and was subject to the same rules as a native for unwitting sins (Numbers 15:22–31), and for purification for uncleanness by reason of contact with a dead body (Numbers 19:10–13).

3. Historical Circumstances:

The historical circumstances were such as to render the position of the resident alien important from the first. A "mixed multitude" went up with the Israelites from Egypt, and after the conquest we find Israelites and the races of Palestine living side by side throughout the country. We repeatedly read of resident aliens in the historical books, e.g. Uriah the Hittite. According to 2 Chronicles 2:17 f (Hebrew 16 f) there was a very large number of such in the days of Solomon, but the figure may be excessive. These seem to have been the remnant of the conquered tribes (1 Kings 9:20 f). Ezekiel in his vision assigned to gerim landed inheritance among the Israelites (47:22 f). Hospitality to the ger was of course a religious duty and the host would go to any lengths to protect his guest (Genesis 19:1–38; Judges 19:24).

II. The Toshabh.

Of the toshabh we know very little. It is possible that the word is practically synonymous with ger, but perhaps it is used of less permanent sojourning. Thus in Leviticus 22:10 it appears to cover anybody residing with a priest. A toshabh could not eat the Passover or the "holy" things of a priest (Exodus 12:45; Leviticus 22:10). His children could be purchased as perpetual slaves, and the law of the Jubilee did not apply to them as to Israelites (Leviticus 25:45). He is expressly mentioned in the law of homicide (Numbers 35:15), but otherwise we have no information as to his legal position. Probably it was similar to that of the ger.

III. The Nokhri Ben Nekhar.

The nokhri or ben nekhar was a foreigner. The word is far wider than those considered above. It covers everything of alien or foreign character regardless of the place of residence. By circumcision a foreign slave could enter into the covenant with Abraham. Foreigners were of course excluded from the Passover (Exodus 12:43), but could offer sacrifices to Israel's God at the religious capital (Leviticus 22:25). The Israelite could exact interest of them (Deuteronomy 23:20) and the payment of debts in cases where an Israelite debtor was protected by the release of Deuteronomy 15:3. Moses forbade the appointment of a foreigner as a ruler (Deuteronomy 17:15, in a law which according to Massoretic Text relates to a "king," but in the preferable text of Septuagint to a ruler generally). Later the worship of God by foreigners from a distance was contemplated and encouraged (1 Kings 8:41–43; Isaiah 2:2 Isaiah 56:3,Isaiah 56:6; etc.), while the case of Naaman shows that a foreigner might worship Him abroad (2 Kings 5:17). A resident foreigner was of course a ger. The distinction between these three words is perhaps best seen in Exodus 12:43,Exodus 12:45,Exodus 12:48 f. in the first of these verses we have ben nekhar, used to cover "alien" generally; in the last the ger is contemplated as likely to undergo a complete naturalization; while in 12:45 the toshabh is regarded as certain to be outside the religious society.

1. Marriage:

In the earlier period marriages with foreigners are common, though disliked (e.g. Genesis 24:3; Genesis 27:46 ff; Numbers 12:1; Judges 14:3, etc.). The Law provides for some unions of this kind (Deuteronomy 21:10 ; compare Numbers 31:18), but later Judaism became more stringent. Moses required the high priest to marry a virgin of his own people (Leviticus 21:14); Ezekiel limited all descendants of Zadok to wives of the house of Israel (44:22); Ezra and Nehemiah carried on a vigorous polemic against the intermarriage of any Jew with foreign women (Ezra 10:1–44; Nehemiah 13:23–31).

2. Exclusion of Some Races from Assembly:

Deuteronomy further takes up a hostile attitude to Ammonites and Moabites, excluding them from the assembly of the Lord even to the tenth generation, while the children of the third generation of Edomites and Egyptians could enter it (23:3-8 (Hebrew 4-9)). From 1 Kings 9:20,1 Kings 9:21,1 Kings 9:24; 1 Chronicles 22:2 we learn of the existence of foreign quarters in Israel.

IV. The Zar.

The remaining word zar means "stranger" and takes its coloring from the context. It may mean "stranger in blood," e.g. non-Aaronite (Numbers 16:40 (Heb 17:5)), or non-Levite (e.g. Numbers 1:51), or a non-member of some other defined family (Deuteronomy 25:5). In opposition to priest it means "lay" (Leviticus 22:10–13), and when the contrast is with holy, it denotes "profane" (Exodus 30:9).

See FOREIGNER; GENTILES; PROSELYTE; CHERETHITES; PELETHITES; MARRIAGE; COMMERCE.

Harold M. Wiener

Strangled

stran'-g'-ld (chanaq; pniktos, from verb pnigo, "to choke," "to smother," "to strangle" (compare choking of swine in the lake, Mark 5:13; the seed are choked by the thorns, Matthew 13:7; the servant takes his fellow-servant by the throat, the King James Version Matthew 18:28)): As adjective "strangled," used of animals deprived of life by choking, and so without the shedding of the blood. Flesh thus killed was forbidden as food among the Hebrews, because it contained the blood (Leviticus 17:12). Even Jewish Christians in the Jerusalem council thought it best to forbid things strangled to be eaten by Gentile converts, so as not to give offense to Jewish sentiment, and doubtless also to prevent participation in heathen sacrificial feasts (Acts 15:20; Acts 21:25).

Edward Bagby Pollard

Strangling

stran'-g'-ling.

See PUNISHMENTS.

Straw; Stubble

stro, stub'-'-l: The cognates of Hebrew tebhen, "straw" and qash, "stubble," have been retained in the modern Arabic terms tibn and qashsh. Tibn applies to the straw which has been cut up into short pieces and more or less split by the threshing operations. It is commonly used throughout the East as a coarse fodder or roughage for domestic herbivorous animals (compare Genesis 24:25,Genesis 24:32; Judges 19:19; 1 Kings 4:28; Isaiah 11:7; Isaiah 65:25). Hay and similar cured crops are practically unknown. Barley, peas and other grain, when fed to animals, are mixed with the tibn. The animals will frequently reject the tibn unless there is grain in it. They often nose about the tibn until the grain settles to the bottom so that they can eat the latter without the straw. Straw left in the manger is thrown out in the stall to form part of the bedding (compare Isaiah 25:10).

Tibn is mixed with clay for plastering walls or for making sun-dried bricks. It is also mixed with lime and sand for plastering. The children of Israel had their task of brickmaking made more arduous by being required to gather stubble and prepare it by chopping it up instead of being given the already prepared straw of the threshing-floors (Exodus 5:7).

Qashsh (literally, "dried up") refers to the stalks left standing in the wheat fields or to any dried-up stalks or stems such as are gathered for burning. Camels and other flocks sometimes supplement their regular meals by grazing on the stubble, otherwise it has no use. In the Bible stubble is used to typify worthless inflammable material (Exodus 15:7; Job 13:25; Job 41:28,Job 41:29; Psalms 83:13; Isaiah 5:24, etc.; 1 Corinthians 3:12, kalame).

mathben, is translated "straw" in Isaiah 25:10.

James A. Patch

Strawed

strod: Past participle of "to strew," "scatter," or "spread about," as powder (of the golden calf, Exodus 32:20, the Revised Version (British and American) "strewed"); branches (Matthew 21:8, the Revised Version (British and American) "spread"); seed (Matthew 25:24,Matthew 25:26, the Revised Version (British and American) "scatter").

Stream

strem:

(1) nachal, English Versions of the Bible "stream," as: "Behold, he smote the rock, so that waters gushed out, and streams overflowed" (Psalms 78:20). Often "valley," as "the valley (the King James Version "river") of the Arnon" (Deuteronomy 2:24); or "brook," as "the brook (the King James Version "river") of Egypt" (Joshua 15:4; see BROOK or EGYPT); or "river," as "the river Kishon" (Judges 4:7).

(2) nahar (Aramaic nehar (Daniel 7:10); compare Arabic nahr, "river"): "He bindeth the streams," the King James Version "floods" (Job 28:11); "the River" (Euphrates) (Exodus 23:31, etc.); "Abanah and Pharpar, the rivers of Damascus" (2 Kings 5:12).

(3) pelegh, the root palagh, "to split," "to divide," hence, "cleft," "channel": "a tree planted by the streams (the King James Version "rivers") of water" (Psalms 1:3); "There is a river, the streams whereof make glad the city of God" (Psalms 46:4); but: "The king's heart is .... as the watercourses" (the King James Version "rivers of water") (Proverbs 21:1).

(4) 'aphiq, the root 'aphaq, "to be strong," hence, "channel," "valley," as holding, confining (BDB): "the streams in the South" (Psalms 126:4); elsewhere "brook," as "the brooks (the King James Version "rivers") of Judah" (Joel 3:18); or "channel," as "the channel of brooks" (Job 6:15); or "watercourses" (the Revised Version margin "ravines," the King James Version "rivers") (Ezekiel 6:3, etc.).

(5) ye'or, from Egyptian 'iotr, 'io'r, especially of the Nile, as: "Seven other kine came up after them out of the river" (Genesis 41:3); the Revised Version (British and American) "stream," the King James Version "river" (Exodus 7:19; Exodus 8:5);, the Revised Version (British and American) "stream," the King James Version "brook"; "The streams (margin "canals") of Egypt shall be diminished and dried up" (Isaiah 19:6).

(6) yabhal, the root yabhal, "to bear along": "brooks and streams of waters" (Isaiah 30:25); compare yabhal, "river," "that spreadeth out its roots by the river" (Jeremiah 17:8); 'ubhal, "the river Ulai" (Daniel 8:2).

(7) nazal, "to flow," "to trickle": "He brought streams also out of the rock" (Psalms 78:16).

(8) 'eshedh, "the slope of the valleys," the King James Version "the stream of the brooks" (Numbers 21:15); compare 'ashedhoth, "the slopes" (Joshua 10:40); "the slopes (margin "springs") of Pisgah" (Deuteronomy 3:17).

(9) potamos, "The stream brake against that house" (Luke 6:48,Luke 6:49); elsewhere "river," as "the river Jordan" (Mark 1:5).

(10) kludon, "stream," the King James Version The Wisdom of Solomon 19:7 (the Revised Version (British and American) "surge").

See BROOK; CANALS; CHANNEL; RIVER; VALE; WATERCOURSE.

Alfred Ely Day

Street

stret.

See CITY.

Strength, Of Israel

strength: For "the strength of the children of Israel," applied to Yahweh in the King James Version Joel 3:16, the Revised Version (British and American) reads "a stronghold to the children of Israel."

Strike

strik: The verbs "to strike" and "to stroke" (latter not in English Versions) have the same derivation, and originally "strike" was the intrans, "stroke" the transitive form. "Strike" however, became used in both senses (always transitive in English Versions of the Bible), while "to stroke" took on the meaning "to, rub gently." But in the King James Version this last force still belonged sometimes to "strike" and is so found in 2 Kings 5:11, "strike his hand over the place" (the Revised Version (British and American) "wave"), and perhaps Exodus 12:7,Exodus 12:22; Tobit 11:11 Otherwise AV's uses of the simple "strike" are modern, including "strike sail" (Acts 27:17; here and in /RAPC Tob 11:11 with an archaic preterite "strake," elsewhere "struck"). The Revised Version's "They lowered the gear" is a more precise translation, not a modernizing of the King James Version's English. The combination "to strike through," however, is not modern English, and was used by the King James Version as meaning either "to pierce" (Judges 5:26; Job 20:24; Proverbs 7:23; Lamentations 4:9), or, as an intensive, "to strike violently," "to crush" (Psalms 110:5). The Revised Version (British and American) has attempted to distinguish only in Habakkuk 3:14, "pierce," margin "smite." "Striking hands" is a common custom at the conclusion of a bargain (Additions to Esther 14:8), but in Job 17:3; Proverbs 6:1; Proverbs 17:18; Proverbs 22:26; the Revised Version margin 11:15, the ceremony is used technically for an agreement to be surety for another. Striking (the Revised Version margin "firing") stones to produce a fire is mentioned (2 Macc 10:3).

The past participle of "strike" is stricken (modern English "struck") (compare Proverbs 23:35; Jeremiah 5:3; Lamentations 4:9). So Isaiah 1:5, "Why will ye be still stricken?" is equivalent to "Why should ye receive any more blows?" (compare 16:7; 53:4,8 margin). But in the phrase "stricken in age" (Genesis 18:11, etc.) "strike" has an older meaning, "advance."

Striker is found in 1 Timothy 3:3; Titus 1:7 as a literal translation of plektes. A hot-tempered man, prone to physical outbursts, is meant. A stroke is simply a"blow," but in Deuteronomy 17:8; Deuteronomy 21:5, "stroke" is used technically for "assault."

Burton Scott Easton

Stringed, Instruments

stringd.

See MUSIC.

Stripes

strips.

See PUNISHMENTS.

Strive

striv.

See GAMES, II, 2.

Stronghold

strong'-hold.

See FORTIFIED CITIES, IV, 1.

Stubble

stub'-'-l (qash (Exodus 5:12, etc.); kalame (The Wisdom of Solomon 3:7; 1 Corinthians 3:12)): These Hebrew and Greek forms are used of the stalks of wheat, etc., left knee-high in the field by the reapers. tebhen (Job 21:18), is a mixture of chopped straw and chaff produced in threshing, which is winnowed out by the fan (compare Jeremiah 23:28; Isaiah 5:24; Matthew 3:12). When tebhen was withheld from them the Israelites had to utilize qash for the manufacture of their bricks (Exodus 5:12).

Studs

studz (nequddoth, "engraving," "stud"): Ornaments consisting of small silver points which it was proposed (Song of Songs 1:11) to affix to the new golden "plaits" (the Revised Version) or "borders" (the King James Version), and which were to replace the strung beads of the bride's necklace.

Stuff

stuf (keli; skeuos): "Material" for any purpose (Ezekiel 12:3,Ezekiel 12:4,Ezekiel 12:7); or "supplies" in a more general sense (Exodus 36:7, Hebrew mela'-khah; compare the King James Version, the English Revised Version 1 Samuel 10:22; 1 Samuel 25:13; 1 Samuel 30:24 (the American Standard Revised Version substitutes "baggage")); frequently, "household possessions" (Genesis 31:37; Genesis 45:20; Exodus 22:7; Joshua 7:11; Nehemiah 13:8; /RAPC Jdt 16:19; the King James Version Judith 15:11 (skeuasmata, the Revised Version (British and American) "furniture"); the King James Version Luke 17:31, where the Revised Version (British and American) reads "goods"). "Mingled stuff" is the translation of sha'aTnez in the Revised Version (British and American) instead of "garment of divers sorts" the King James Version (Deuteronomy 22:11).

Stumbling-Block; Stumbling-Stone

stum'-bling-blok, (mikhshol, makhshelah; proskomma, skandalon): These are the most important of the varied renderings of either of two cognate Hebrew words, or of two different Greek words. Sometimes the Greek word for "stone" (lithos) accompanies the principal word. There is no important difference in the meaning of the words or of their renderings. the Revised Version (British and American) generally substitutes "stumbling" for "offence" of the King James Version.

The literal meaning of the Hebrew words--an object which causes one to stumble or fall--appears in such passages as Leviticus 19:14: "Thou shalt not .... put a stumblingblock (mikhshol) before the blind" (compare Jeremiah 6:21). But the expression is ordinarily figurative, referring to that which causes material ruin or spiritual downfall, which were closely connected in Old Testament thought (Psalms 119:165; Ezekiel 21:15). The things that lead astray are silver and gold (Ezekiel 7:19); idols (Ezekiel 14:3; Zechariah 1:3, etc.).

One of the New Testament words, skandalon, literally means the stick of a trap to which the bait is attached, and which when touched springs the trap. Figuratively either word refers to a thing or a person that leads one to fall into error, into sin or into destruction: the cross of Christ (Galatians 5:11; Romans 11:9); another's liberty (1 Corinthians 8:9); Peter in Matthew 16:23; Christ, whose life and character were so different from Jewish expectation (Romans 9:33).

See also OFFENCE.

George Rice Hovey

Sua

su'-a (Soua; the King James Version, Sud): Name of a family of temple-servants who went up from exile with Zerubbabel (1 Esdras 5:29) = "Sia" of Nehemiah 7:47; "Siaha" of Ezra 2:44.

Suah

su'-a (cuach): Son of Zophah, of the tribe of Asher (1 Chronicles 7:36).

Sub-Apostolic Literature

See LITERATURE, SUB-APOSTOLIC.

Subai

su'-ba-i, su'-bi (Subaei): Name of a family of temple-servants who returned with Zerubbabel (1 Esdras 5:30) = "Shamlai" of Ezra 2:46; "Salmai" of Nehemiah 7:48.

Subas

su'-bas (Soubas; the King James Version, Suba): Name of a family of "the sons of the servants of Solomon" returning with Zerubbabel (1 Esdras 5:34), wanting in the parallel lists of Ezra 2:57; Nehemiah 7:59.

Suborn

sub-orn' (hupoballo (Acts 6:11; only here in the New Testament)): The word means to introduce by collusion, to put one person in the place of another, to employ anyone in a secret manner and instruct such a one to act for and as though he were another person.

Substance

sub'-stans (rekhush; hupostasis): Lit. that which stands under, is in the Bible used chiefly of material goods and possessions. In the Old Testament it is the translation of numerous Hebrew words, of which rekhush, "that which is gathered together," is one of the earliest and most significant (Genesis 12:5; Genesis 13:6; Genesis 15:14; 1 Chronicles 27:31; Ezra 8:21, etc.). In the New Testament "substance" appears in a few passages as the translation of ousia, "being," "subsistence" (Luke 15:13), huparxis, "goods," "property" (Hebrews 10:34), huparchonta, "things at hand" (Luke 8:3). Special interest attaches to Hebrews 11:1, the King James Version "Now faith is the substance of things hoped for," etc., where the word is used in its proper etymological sense as the translation of hupostasis, "that which stands under." the Revised Version (British and American) changes to "assurance," margin "the giving substance to," which last seems best to bring out the idea of faith as that which makes the things hoped for real to the soul. The same Greek word hupostasis is rendered "substance" in Hebrews 1:3 the Revised Version (British and American), instead of the King James Version "person," with reference to Christ, "the very image (margin "impress") of his substance," i.e. of God's invisible essence or being, the manifestation of God Himself.

W. L. Walker

Subtil; Subtle; Subtlety; Subtilty

sub'-til, sut'-'-l, sut'-'-l-ti (chakham, nakhal, mirmah; dolos): These words are used

(1) in a good sense: 2 Samuel 13:3, chakham, "wise," "Jonadab was a very subtle (the American Standard Revised Version "subtle") man" (discreet); Proverbs 1:4, `ormah, "prudence," "to give subtlety to the simple," the American Standard Revised Version and the English Revised Version margin "prudence"; The Wisdom of Solomon 7:22, leptos, "thin," said of the spirit in Wisdom (very fine or refined); 8:8, strophe, "winding," "subtilties of speeches"; Ecclesiasticus 39:2, "subtil parables," the Revised Version (British and American) "the subtleties of parables";

(2) in a bad sense: Genesis 3:1, `arum, "crafty," "Now the serpent was more subtle than any beast of the field," the American Standard Revised Version "subtle."

Genesis 27:35, mirmah, "deceit," "fraud," "Thy brother came with subtlety," the Revised Version (British and American) "with guile"; Psalms 105:25, nakhal, "to deceive," the King James Version "deal subtlely," the American Standard Revised Version "subtly"; Proverbs 7:10, natsar, "to watch," "guard," "to be hidden or subtle of heart," the Revised Version (British and American) "wily," margin " `close,' Hebrew `guarded'"; 2 Kings 10:19, `oqebhah, "deceit" or "treachery" (here only); Judith 5:11, katasophizo, "to use subtlety"; Ecclesiasticus 19:25, panourgia, "cunning," "unscrupulousness," "There is an exquisite subtlety, and the same is unjust"; 2 Corinthians 11:3, "The serpent beguiled Eve through his subtlety," the Revised Version (British and American) "in his craftiness"; Matthew 26:4, dolos, "deceit," "that they might take Jesus by subtlety, and kill him"; Acts 13:10, "O full of all subtlety and all mischief," the Revised Version (British and American) "all guile and all villany."

English Revised Version has "subtilty" for "wisdom" (Proverbs 8:5,Proverbs 8:12), margin and the American Standard Revised Version, "prudence"; for "with subtlety" (the English Revised Version Mark 14:1, the King James Version "by craft") the American Standard Revised Version has "with subtlety."

W. L. Walker

Suburbs

sub'-urbz.

See CITY.

Subvert

sub-vurt' (`awath; anatrepo): Occurs 5 t:

(1) in the sense of overturning, etc., as the translation of `awath, "to make bent or crooked" (Lamentations 3:36), "to subvert a man in his cause"; of anaskeudzo, primarily, "to pack up baggage"; then, "to ravage," etc. (Acts 15:24, "subverting your souls"); of anatrepo, "to turn upside down," "to overturn" (Titus 1:11, "who subvert whole houses," the Revised Version (British and American) "overthrow"); of katastrophe, "overthrow," "destruction" (2 Timothy 2:14, "to the subverting of them that hear");

(2) in the sense of perverting: ekstrepho, "to turn or twist out" "to turn about" (Titus 3:11, "such is subverted," the Revised Version (British and American) "perverted"). For "overthrown me" (Job 19:6) the Revised Version (British and American) has "subverted me (in my cause)," margin "overthrown me"; for "perverteth" (Proverbs 19:3), "subverteth."

W. L. Walker

Sucathites

su'kath-its (sukhathim; Codex Vaticanus Sochathieim; Codex Alexandrinus Sokathieim; the King James Version Suchathites): These are named only once (1 Chronicles 2:55), a family of scribes living at Jabez.

Succeed; Success

suk-sed', suk-ses' (yarash, sakhal; euemeria): "To succeed" means,

(1) and originally, "to follow after";

(2) mostly in modern English, "to prosper"; in the King James Version, with one exception, the word has a qualifying adjective.

(1) In the first sense it is the translation of yarash, "to seize" or "to take possession" (Deuteronomy 2:12; Deuteronomy 12:29, the American Standard Revised Version "dispossessest," the English Revised Version "possessest"); of qum, "to rise up" (Deuteronomy 25:6, "shall succeed in the name of his brother"); of diadechomai (Ecclesiasticus 48:8, "prophets to succeed after him").

(2) In the sense of prospering, "success" is the translation of sakhal, "to be wise," "to prosper" (Joshua 1:8, "Thou shalt have good success," the King James Version margin "do wisely," the Revised Version margin "deal wisely"; compare the King James Version margin Job 22:2; Psalms 111:10; Proverbs 3:4); "good success" occurs in Tobit 7:12, euodosei ta kallista; The Wisdom of Solomon 13:19, epituchia; Ecclesiasticus 20:9, euodia, the Revised Version (British and American) "prosperity," "There is a prosperity that a man findeth in misfortunes; and there is a gain that turneth to loss"; Ecclesiasticus 38:13, euodia (so Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Ephraemi--this word = "sweet savior," "fragrance"; compare Philippians 4:18; Ephesians 5:2; 2 Corinthians 2:15). See further EUODIA. the Revised Version (British and American) "the issue for good" 1 Macc 4:55, euodoo; 8:23, kalos, etc. "Success," simply (as "prosperity," euemeria), 2 Macc 10:28, "a pledge of success and victory"; "successor" occurs (Ecclesiasticus 46:1, "Joshua .... was the successor diadochos of Moses"; 2 Macc 9:23; 14:26).

W. L. Walker

Succor; Succorer

suk'-er, suk'-er-er ('azar; boetheo, prostatis): Is the translation of 'azar, "to gird" (2 Samuel 8:5, etc.); of boetheo, "to come in aid of" (2 Corinthians 6:2, "In a day of salvation did I succor thee"; Hebrews 2:18, "He is able to succor them that are tempted"); of prostatis, "one standing before" (Romans 16:2, the American Standard Revised Version "helper of many"); of antilepsis (Ecclesiasticus 51:7, the King James Version "I looked for the succour of men, but there was none"); of phugadeuterion (1 Macc 1:53, "flee for succor," the Revised Version (British and American) "place of refuge"); of sozo (1 Macc 2:44, "for succor," the Revised Version (British and American) "for safety"); of skepe (2 Macc 5:9, the Revised Version (British and American) "shelter"); "succors" occurs (The Wisdom of Solomon 17:12, the King James Version boethema, "for fear is nothing else but a betraying (the Revised Version (British and American) "surrender") of the succours which reason offereth"); "succoreth" (1 Macc 12:15, boetheo, "help from heaven that succoureth us," the Revised Version (British and American) "to help us"). the Revised Version (British and American) has "succor" for "help" (1 Chronicles 18:5); "O thou my succor," for "O my strength" (Psalms 22:19).

W. L. Walker

Succoth (1)

suk'-oth, suk'-oth (cukkoth, "booths"; Skenai, Sokchoth, etc.): After parting with Esau, Jacob journeyed to Succoth, a name which he gave to the place from the "booths" which he erected to shelter his cattle (Genesis 33:17). It was in the territory of Gad, and is mentioned with Beth-nimrah (Joshua 13:27). In his pursuit of Zeba and Zalmunnah, Gideon seems to have retraced the path followed by Jacob, passing Succoth before Penuel (Judges 8:5). Their churlishness on that occasion brought dire punishment upon the men of Succoth. Gideon on his return "taught them" with thorns and briers (Judges 8:16). In the soil of the valley between Succoth and Zarethan, which was suitable for the purpose, the brass castings of the furniture for Solomon's Temple were made (1 Kings 7:46; 2 Chronicles 4:17). Jerome (on Genesis 33:17) says that in his day it was a city beyond Jordan in the district of Scythopolis. From the above data it is clear that Succoth lay on the East of the Jordan and North of the Jabbok. From Psalms 60:6; Psalms 108:7, we may infer that it was close to the Jordan valley, part of which was apparently known by its name. Neubauer (Geog. du Talmud, 248) gives the Talmudic name as Tar`ala. Merrill (East of the Jordan, 386) and others compare this with Tell Deir `Alla, the name of an artificial mound about a mile North of the Jabbok, on the edge of the valley, fully 4 miles East of the Jordan. There is a place called Sakut West of the Jordan, about 10 miles South of Beisan. This has been proposed by some; but it is evident that Succoth lay East of the river. No trace of the name has been found here.

W. Ewing

Succoth (2)

(cukkoth; Sokchoth (Exodus 12:37; Exodus 13:20; Numbers 33:5)): The first station of the Hebrews on leaving Rameses (see EXODUS). The word means "booths." The distance from ETHAM (which see) suggests that the site may have lain in the lower part of Wady Tumeilat, but the exact position is unknown. This region seems possibly to have been called T-K-u by the Egyptians (see PITHOM). Brugsch and other scholars suppose this term to have been changed to Succoth by the Old Testament writer, but this is very doubtful, Succoth being a common Hebrew word, while T-K-u is Egyptian The Hebrew "c" does not appear ever to be rendered by "t" in Egyptian. The capital of the Sethroitic nome was called T-K-t (Pierret, Vocab. hieroglyph., 697), and this word means "bread." If the region of T-K-u was near this town, it would seem to have lain on the shore road from Edom to Zoan, in which case it could not be the Succoth of the Exodus.

C. R. Conder

Succoth-Benoth

suk'-oth, suk'-oth-be'-noth, be'-noth (cukkoth benoth; Rhochchothbaineithei, Codex Alexandrinus (better) Sokchothbenithei):

1. The Meaning according to the Hebrew:

The name of an idol made by the Babylonians sent into exile at Samaria by an Assyrian king (Shalmaneser), and mentioned among the deities of the various nationalities there assembled (2 Kings 17:30). In Hebrew, Succoth-benoth means "booths of daughters," and has been explained as the chambers wherein the Babylonians placed women for prostitution; or booths or tabernacles in which images of certain goddesses were worshipped.

2. Sir H. Rawlinson's Identification of the Name:

The parallelism, however, requires a deity, like the Nergal of the Cutheans, the Ashima of the Hamathites, etc., and not a chamber or shrine. This consideration caused Sir H. to suggest an identification of Succoth-benoth with the Babylonian Zer-panitum (= Zer-banitum), whose name was probably pronounced Zer-panith, the spouse of Merodach (the god of Babylon), as the "seed-creatress." The difference in the first component, zer, was regarded as due to its possible Hamitic (= Sumerian) equivalent, or to a Semitic mistranslation, both of which explanations are now known to be untenable.

3. Is Succoth the Babylonian Sakut?:

As the people who made Succoth-benoth were Babylonians, we should expect here either a name of Merodach, the god of Babylon, or one of the deities identified with him. At present the only suggestion which can be made is that Benoth is for ban wath, i.e. ban'(i) mati, "creator of the land." Both the Semitic and the bilingual creation-stories speak of Merodach as the creator of the world, with its products, and the great cities of Babylonia; and "father Enlil," who bore the title "lord of the world," bestowed the same upon Merodach at the creation, thus identifying Merodach with himself. Now there is a group which may be read either Dikut, "the Judge," or Sakut, "the Counselor," and if we can read Succoth-benoth as Sakut(h)ban' wat(h), "the Counselor, creator of the land," a satisfactory explanation of this puzzling name will be furnished. The terminal -i of the Babylonian has been preserved in the ei, of the Greek. The adoption of such a descriptive name of Enlil-Merodach would form a compromise between abandoning their old objects of worship and accepting "the god of the land" (2 Kings 17:26).

T. G. Pinches

Suchathites

su'-kath-its.

See SUCATHITES.

Sud

sud: The King James Version = the Revised Version (British and American) SUA (which see).

Sudias

su'-di-as (Soudias): In 1 Esdras 5:23, a Levitical family that returned with Zerubbabel, called in Ezra 2:40 "Hodaviah" and in Nehemiah 7:43 "Hodevah" (which see).

Suffering

suf'-er-ing: A great variety of Hebrew and Greek expressions, too large to be here enumerated, have been translated by "suffering" and other forms derived from the same verb. The most obvious meanings of the word are the following:

(1) The commonest meaning perhaps in the English Versions of the Bible is "to permit," "to allow," "to give leave to": "Moses suffered to write a bill of divorcement, and to put her away" (Mark 10:4).

(2) "To experience," "to go through,"' "to endure": "I have suffered many things this day in a dream because of him" (Matthew 27:19). A woman "had suffered many things of many physicians" (Mark 5:26). Other common phrases are "to suffer affliction" (1 Thessalonians 3:4; Hebrews 11:25, the Revised Version (British and American) "share ill-treatment"), "to suffer hardship" (2 Timothy 2:9), "to suffer adversity" (Hebrews 13:3 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "to be ill-treated"), "to suffer dishonor" (the King James Version "shame," Acts 5:41), "to suffer violence," (Matthew 11:12), "to suffer wrong" (Acts 7:24), "to suffer terror" (Psalms 88:15), "to suffer shipwreck" (2 Corinthians 11:25), "to suffer hunger" (Psalms 34:10; Proverbs 19:15), "to suffer thirst" (Job 24:11).

(3) "To put up with," "to tolerate": the King James Version, "For ye suffer fools gladly (the Revised Version (British and American) "ye bear with the foolish gladly"), seeing ye yourselves are wise" (2 Corinthians 11:1,2 Corinthians 11:9).

(4) "To undergo punishment": "Think ye that these Galileans were sinners above all the Galileans, because they have suffered these things?" (Luke 13:2).

(5) "To sustain loss": "If any man's work shall be burned, he shall suffer loss" (1 Corinthians 3:15; also Philippians 3:8). (6) "To suffer death." Here the clearest references are to the suffering or passion of Christ, which indeed includes the enduring of untold hardships and affliction, all of which culminate in His vicarious death for man (Matthew 16:21; Mark 8:31; Mark 9:12; Luke 9:22; Luke 17:25; Luke 22:15; Luke 24:26,Luke 24:46; Acts 3:18; Acts 17:3; Acts 26:23; 1 Peter 3:18).

Suffering belongs to the discipline of all Christ's followers (Romans 8:17; 2 Corinthians 1:7; Galatians 3:4; Philippians 3:10; 1 Thessalonians 2:2; 2 Thessalonians 1:5; 2 Timothy 2:12; 2 Timothy 3:12; James 5:10; 1 Peter 2:20 1 Peter 3:14,1 Peter 3:17; 1 Peter 4:1,1 Peter 4:13,1 Peter 4:16; 1 Peter 5:10). Such suffering is called a suffering for God's or Christ's sake (Jeremiah 15:15; Acts 9:16; Philippians 1:29; 2 Timothy 1:12). This fellowship in suffering unites us with the saints of God in all times (James 5:10), and is indeed a fellowship with the Lord Himself (Philippians 3:10), who uses this discipline to mold us more and more according to His character.

H. L. E. Luering

Suffocation

suf-o-ka'-shun.

See PUNISHMENTS.

Suicide

su'-i-sid.

See CRIMES.

Sukkiim

suk'-i-im (cukkiyim): Named in 2 Chronicles 12:3 as a tribe that took part with Libyans and Cretans in the invasion of Judea by Shishak. The identification is uncertain.

Sulphur

sul'-fur.

See BRIMSTONE.

Summer

sum'-er (qayits; Aramaic qayiT (Daniel 2:35), from quts quT, "to cut off," "to pluck or gather fruit," hence, the time of fruit, summer (2 Samuel 16:1,2 Samuel 16:2; Jeremiah 40:10,Jeremiah 40:12); theros (Matthew 24:32; Luke 21:30)): The Hebrew verb, mentioned above, occurs in Isaiah 18:6, "to summer," used of the ravenous birds feeding upon carcasses of the slain. The term "summer parlor" in Judges 3:20 (compare 3:24) is literally, "upper room," and is so rendered in the Revised Version (British and American). The summer was the dry season extending from April to October when usually no rain falls. Hence, the "drought of summer" (Psalms 32:4).

See SEASONS.

H. Porter

Summer-House

(beth ha-qayits): Amos 3:15 notes it as part of the judgment on Israel that Yahweh would smite "the winter-house with the summer-house." It belonged to the luxury of the period that kings and wealthy persons had separate residences for the cold and hot seasons. This is the only mention of "the summer-house," but Eglon's "cool upper room" (Judges 3:20, the King James Version and the English Revised Version "summer parlour," not in this case a separate building) may be compared.

See WINTER-HOUSE.

Sun (1)

See ASTRONOMY, sec. I, 2.

Sun (2)

(Figurative): Poetical conceptions for the sun are frequently found in the Scriptures, though the strictly figurative expressions are not common. Undoubtedly the Jewish festivals, religious as well as agricultural, were determined by the sun's movements, and this fact, together with the poetical nature of the Hebrews and their lack of scientific knowledge, had a tendency. to multiply spiritual and metaphorical expressions concerning the "greater light" of the heavens. Some of these poetical conceptions are very beautiful, such as the sun having a habitation (Habakkuk 3:11), a tabernacle (Psalms 19:4 f) set for him by Yahweh, out of which he comes as a bridegroom from his chamber, rejoicing as a strong man to run a race. The sun is also given as the emblem of constancy (Psalms 72:5,Psalms 72:17), of beauty (Song of Songs 6:10), of the law of God (Psalms 19:7), of the purity of heavenly beings (Revelation 1:16; Revelation 12:1), and of the presence and person of God (Psalms 84:11). The ancient world given to personifying the sun did not refrain from sun-worship, and even the Hebrew in the time of the kings came perilously near this idolatry (2 Kings 23:11).

See SUN-WORSHIP.

C. E. Schenk

Sun Gate

See EAST GATE.

Sun, Chariots Of The

See HORSES OF THE SUN.

Sun, Horses Of The

See HORSES OF THE SUN.