Wanderings Of Israel (continued) – Water Of Separation (Or Of Uncleanness)

Wanderings Of Israel (continued)

(2) In the 2nd list (Numbers 21:13–20) we read of a still more gradual and cautious advance in the Amorite lands, and this may represent the march of the main body following the men of war. Leaving the Arnon, they reached "a well" (Beer), probably near Dibon, this being one of those shallow water pits which the Arabs still scoop out in the valleys when the water runs below the surface. Between Arnon and Pisgah (or Nebo) no less than five stations are noticed in about 20 miles, namely Beer, Mattanah ("the gift"), Nahaliel ("the valley of God"), Bamoth (or Bamoth-Baal (Numbers 22:41), "the monuments of Baal"), and Pisgah (Jebel Neba). Of these only the last is certainly known, but the central station at Nahaliel may be placed at the great gorge of the Zerqa Ma`ain, the road from Dibon to Nebo crossing its head near Beth-meon. There was plenty of water in this vicinity. The last stage of Israel's march thus seems to represent a program of only about 4 miles a day, covered by the more rapid advance of the fighting men; and no doubt the women, children and flocks were not allowed to proceed at all until, at least, Sihon had been driven from Heshbon (Numbers 21:21–25).

6. Review:

We have thus considered every march made by the Hebrews, from Egypt to Shittim, by the light of actual knowledge of their route. We have found no case in which the stations are too far apart for the passage of their beasts, and no discrepancies between any of the accounts when carefully considered. If, as some critical writers think, the story of the spies and the list of camps said to have been written down by Moses are to be attributed to a Hebrew priest writing in Babylonia, we cannot but wonder how he came to be so accurately informed as to the topography of the wilderness, its various regions, its water-supply and its natural products. It does not seem necessary to suppose a "double source," because, in the spring of two successive years, the manna is noticed, and Israel is recorded as having eaten the quail flying (as now) by night to the Jordan valley from Africa. The march was not continuous, and plenty of time is left, by the recorded dates, for the resting of the flocks at such waters as those of Elim, Rephidim and Hazeroth. The wanderings of the 38 years represent a nomadic life in the best pastures of the region, in and near the `Arabah. Here the new race grew up--hardy as the Arabs of today. When they left Egypt the Pharaoh still had a firm hold on the "way of the Philistines," and the Canaanites owned his sway. But 40 years later Egypt was defeated by the Amorites, and the forces of the Pharaoh were withdrawn from Jerusalem after suffering defeat in Bashan (see Tell el-Amarna Letters, number 64, British Museum, where no less than nine known places near Ashteroth and Edrei are noticed); general chaos then resulted in Southern Palestine, when the `Abiri (or Hebrews) appeared from Seir, and "destroyed all the rulers" (see EXODUS). This then, was the historic opportunity for the defeat of the Amorites, and for Joshua's conquest of the Promised Land.

C. R. Conder

War, Man Of

('ish milchamah):

"Yahweh is a man of war:

Yahweh is his name" (Exodus 15:3).

In early Israel the character of Yahweh as the war-God forms a prominent feature in the conception of God (Numbers 10:35; Numbers 21:14; Joshua 5:13; Joshua 10:11; Judges 5:4,Revelation 5:2,Revelation 5:9,Revelation 5:12,Revelation 6:6, etc.).

See GOD, NAMES OF, III, 8; LORD OF HOSTS; and HDB, V, 635 ff.

War; Warfare

wor, wor'-far (milchamah, 'anshe m., "men of war," "soldiers"; polemos, polemein, strateuesthai, stratia):

1. Religious Significance

2. Preliminaries

3. Operations of War

4. Strategy

5. Important Requisites

6. Characteristics

7. Defeat and Victory

8. Spoils and Trophies

9. Treaties of Peace

10. War in the New Testament

LITERATURE

1. Religious Significance:

From an early period of Hebrew history war had a religious significance. The Hebrews were the people of Yahweh, and they were reminded in their wars by the priest or priests who accompanied their armies that Yahweh was with them to fight their battles (Deuteronomy 20:1–4). It was customary to open a campaign, or to enter an engagement, with sacrificial rites (1 Samuel 7:8–10; 1 Samuel 13:9). Hence, in the Prophets, to "prepare" war is to carry out the initiatory religious rites and therefore to "sanctify" war (Jeremiah 6:4; Jeremiah 22:7; Jeremiah 51:27,Jeremiah 51:28; Micah 3:5; Joel 3:9; the Revised Version margin in each case); and Isaiah even speaks of Yahweh mustering His host and summoning to battle His "consecrated ones" (Isaiah 13:3), the warriors consecrated by the sacrifices offered before the war actually opened. The religious character attaching to war explains also the taboo which we find associated with it (Deuteronomy 20:7; Deuteronomy 23:10; 2 Samuel 11:11).

2. Preliminaries:

(1) Religious Preliminaries.

It was in keeping with this that the oracle should be consulted before a campaign, or an engagement (Judges 20:18 1 Samuel 14:37; 1 Samuel 23:2; 1 Samuel 28:6; 1 Samuel 30:8). The ark of God was believed to be possessed of special virtue in assuring victory, and, because it was identified in the eyes of the Israelites with the presence of Yahweh, it was taken into battle (1 Samuel 4:3). The people learned, however, by experience to put their trust in Yahweh Himself and not in any outward token of His presence. At the battle of Ebenezer the ark was taken into the fight with disastrous results to Israel (1 Samuel 4:4). On the other hand at the battle of Michmash, the sacred ephod at Saul's request accompanied the Israelites into the field, and there was a great discomfiture of the Philistines (1 Samuel 14:18). In the later history prophets were appealed to for guidance before a campaign (1 Kings 22:5; 2 Kings 3:11), although fanatical members of the order sometimes gave fatal advice, as to Ahab at Ramoth-gilead, and probably to Josiah at Megiddo. Upon occasion the king addressed the host before engaging the enemy (2 Chronicles 20:20–22, where Jehoshaphat also had singers to go before the army into battle); and Judas Maccabeus did so, with prayer to God, on various occasions (1 Macc 3:58; 4:30; 5:32).

(2) Military Preliminaries.

The call to arms was given by sound of trumpet throughout the land (Judges 3:27; Revelation 7:3; 1 Samuel 13:3; 2 Samuel 15:10; 2 Samuel 20:1; compare Numbers 10:2). It was the part of the priests to sound an alarm with the trumpets (2 Chronicles 13:12–16; compare 1 Macc 4:40; 16:8), and the trumpets were to be blown in time of battle to keep God in remembrance of Israel that they might gain the victory. In the Prophets, we find the commencement of war described as the drawing of the sword from its sheath (Ezekiel 21:3), and the uncovering of the shield (Isaiah 22:6). Graphic pictures of the mobilizing of forces, both for invasion and for defense, are found in Isaiah 22:6–8 and Nahum 3:2 and other Prophets. It was in the springtime that campaigns were usually opened, or resumed after a cessation of hostilities in winter (2 Samuel 11:1; 1 Kings 20:22,1 Kings 20:26).

3. Operations of War:

Of the actual disposition of troops in battle there are no full accounts till the Maccabean time, but an examination of the Biblical battlefields by modern travelers with knowledge of military history has yielded valuable results in showing the position of the combatants and the progress of the fight (an excellent example in Dr. William Miller's Least of All Lands, 85 ff, 116 ff, 150 ff, where the battles of Michmash, Elah and Gilboa are described with plans). With the Israelites the order of battle was simple. The force was drawn up, either in line, or in three divisions, a center and two wings. There was a rearguard (called in the King James Version "rereward," in the Revised Version (British and American) "rearward") to give protection on the march or to bring in stragglers (Judges 7:16; 1 Samuel 11:11; 2 Samuel 18:2; 1 Macc 5:33; compare also Numbers 10:25; Joshua 6:9; 1 Samuel 29:2; Isaiah 58:8). The signal for the charge and the retreat was given by sound of trumpet. There was a battle-cry to inspire courage and to impart confidence (Judges 7:20; Amos 1:14, etc.). The issue of the battle depended upon the personal courage and endurance of the combatants, fighting man against man, but there were occasions when the decision was left to single combat, as at the battle of Elah between the giant Goliath and the stripling David (1 Samuel 17:1–58). The combat at Gibeon between the men of Benjamin, twelve in number, followers of Ish-bosheth, and twelve of the servants of David, in which each slew his man and all fell together by mutual slaughter, was the prelude to "a very sore battle" in which Abner and the men of Israel were beaten before the servants of David (2 Samuel 2:16).

To the minor operations of war belong the raid, such as the Philistines made into the Valley of Rephaim (1 Chronicles 14:9), the foray, the object of which was plunder (2 Samuel 3:22), the foraging to secure supplies (2 Samuel 23:11 margin), and the movements of bands who captured defenseless inhabitants and sold them as slaves (2 Kings 5:2).

4. Strategy:

Of strategical movements in war there was the ambush with liers-in-wait resorted to by Joshua at Ai (Joshua 8:3); the feint, resorted to by the Israelites against the tribe of Benjamin (Judges 20:20); the flank movement, adopted by David in the Valley of Rephaim to rout the Philistines (2 Samuel 5:22 f); and the surprise, inflicted successfully at the Waters of Merom upon the Canaanites under Jabin by Joshua (Joshua 11:1 f). Of all these the story of Judas Maccabeus, the great military leader of the Jewish nation, furnishes illustrations (1 Macc 4:5 and elsewhere).

5. Important Requisites:

Among the requisites for the proper conduct of war the most important was the camp (machaneh). Of the exact configuration of the camp of the Israelites, it is not possible to speak with certainty. The camp of Israel in the wilderness seems to have been quadrilateral, although some have supposed it to be round or triangular (Numbers 2:1). The camp in the wilderness was furnished with ensigns and standards--the family ensign ('oth), and a standard (deghel) for the group of tribes occupying each of the four sides. The standard or banner (nec) is used of the signal for the mustering of troops, but standard-bearer, which occurs only once in the Bible, is a doubtful reading (Isaiah 10:18, where the Revised Version margin, "sick man," is rather to be followed). In time of war the camp was surrounded by a barricade, or wagon-rampart (ma`gal), as at Elah (1 Samuel 17:20); and Saul lay within such a barricade in the wilderness of Ziph with his people round about him when David surprised him and carried off his spear (1 Samuel 26:5). Tents were used for the shelter of troops, at any rate when occupied with a siege (2 Kings 7:7), although at the siege of Rabbah we read of booths for the purpose (2 Samuel 11:11). Pickets were set to watch the camp, and the watch was changed three times in the course of the night (Judges 7:19; 1 Macc 12:27). It was usual to leave a guard in charge of the camp when the force went into action or went off upon a raid (1 Samuel 25:13; 1 Samuel 30:10). Careful prescriptions were laid down for the preservation of the purity of the camp, "for Yahweh thy God walketh in the midst of thy camp, .... therefore shall thy camp be holy" (Deuteronomy 23:9–14; compare Numbers 5:1–4). Garrisons (matstsabh) were placed in occupation of fortresses and strategical centers (2 Chronicles 17:2). No doubt the caves in the hillsides and rocky fastnesses of the land, as at Michmash, would serve for their reception (1 Samuel 13:1–23). The garrisons, however, which are expressly mentioned, were for the most part military posts for the occupation of a subject country--Philistines in Israelite territory (1 Samuel 13:23; 1 Samuel 14:1,1 Samuel 14:11), and Israelites in Syrian and Edomite territory (2 Samuel 8:6,2 Samuel 8:14).

6. Characteristics:

Among the characteristic notes of war, the tumult and the shouting were often noticed by the sacred historians (1 Samuel 4:6; 1 Samuel 14:19; 2 Kings 7:6). In the figurative language of the prophets the terrors and horrors and devastation of war are set forth in lurid colors. "The snorting of his horses is heard from Dan," is Jeremiah's description of an invading army, "at the sound of the neighing of his strong ones the whole land trembleth" (Jeremiah 8:16). `The crack of the whip and the noise of the rumbling wheel and the galloping horse, and the jolting chariot and the rearing horsemen; and the flash of the sword and the glitter of the spear, and the multitude of slain; and a mass of dead bodies and no end to the carcasses' (Nahum 3:2–4: J. M. P. Smith's translation in ICC). Because of the devastation of territory and the slaughter of men which it entails, the sword is named with famine and "noisome beasts" (the American Standard Revised Version has "evil beasts") and "pestilence" as one of God's "four sore judgments" (Ezekiel 14:21, the King James Version). By a familiar figure "the sword" is often taken for all the operations of war, because it is characteristic of it to devour and to destroy (2 Samuel 2:26; Jeremiah 2:30).

7. Defeat and Victory:

While the treatment of the vanquished in the wars of Israel never reached the pitch of savagery common in Assyrian warfare, there are not wanting examples of excessive severity, such as David's treatment of his Moabite prisoners (2 Samuel 8:2) and of the Ammonites captured at Rabbah (2 Samuel 12:31), and Menahem's barbarous treatment of Tiphsah (2 Kings 15:16; compare Numbers 31:17; Joshua 6:21). That it was common for the Philistines to mutilate and abuse their prisoners is shown by Saul's determination not to fall into their hands (1 Samuel 31:4). On that occasion the Philistines not only stripped the slain, but cut off Saul's head and fixed his body to the wall of Bethshan (1 Samuel 31:9,1 Samuel 31:10). It was usual to carry off prisoners and sell them as slaves (2 Kings 5:2; 1 Macc 3:41). The conquerors were wont to deport the population of the subjugated country (2 Kings 17:6), to carry off treasure and impose tribute (2 Kings 16:8), and even to take the gods into captivity (Isaiah 46:1). On the other hand, the victors were hailed with acclamations and songs of rejoicing (1 Samuel 18:6), and victory was celebrated with public thanksgivings (Exodus 15:1; Judges 5:1; 1 Macc 4:24).

The spoils of war, spoken of as booty also--armor, clothing, jewelry, money, captives and animals--falling to the victors, were divided equally between those who had taken part in the battle and those who had been left behind in camp (Numbers 31:27; Joshua 22:8; 1 Samuel 30:24 f).

8. Spoils and Trophies:

A proportion of the spoils was reserved for the Levites, and "a tribute unto the Lord" was also levied before distribution was made of the collected booty (Numbers 31:28,Numbers 31:30). To the Lord, in the Israelite interpretation of war, the spoils truly belong, and we see this exemplified at the capture of Jericho when the silver and the gold and the vessels of brass were put into the treasury of the house of the Lord (Joshua 6:24). Under the monarchy, part of the spoils fell to the king who might in turn dedicate it to the Lord or use it for the purposes of war (2 Kings 14:14; 1 Chronicles 18:7,1 Chronicles 18:11). The armor of the conquered was sometimes dedicated as a trophy of victory and placed in the temple of the heathen or preserved near the ark of God (1 Samuel 21:9; 1 Samuel 31:9).

9. Treaties of Peace:

As the blast of the war-horn summoned to war, so it intimated the cessation of hostilities (2 Samuel 2:28); and as to draw the sword was the token of the entrance upon a campaign, so to return it to its sheath, or to put it up into the scabbard, was emblematic of the establishment of peace (Jeremiah 47:6). As ambassadors were sent to summon to war (Jeremiah 49:14), or to dissuade from war (2 Chronicles 35:21), so ambassadors were employed to negotiate peace (Isaiah 33:7). Treaties of peace were made on occasion between combatants, as between Ahab and Ben-hadad II after the defeat of the latter and his fortunate escape from the hands of Ahab with his life (1 Kings 20:30,1 Kings 20:31). By the appeal of Ben-hadad's representative to Ahab's clemency his life was spared, and in return therefor he granted to Ahab the right to have bazaars for trade in Damascus as his father had had in Samaria (1 Kings 20:34). Alliances, offensive and defensive, were common, as Ahab and Jehoshaphat against Syria (1 Kings 22:2), Jehoram and Jehoshaphat and the king of Edom against Moab (2 Kings 3:7), and the kings of the West, including Ahab and Hadadezer of Damascus, to resist Shalmaneser II of Assyria, who routed the allies at the battle of Qarqar in 854 BC. It is among the wonderful works of Yahweh that He makes war to cease to the end of the earth, that He breaks the bow, and cuts the spear in sunder, and "burneth the chariots in the fire" (Psalms 46:9). And prophetic pictures of the peace of the latter days include the breaking of "the bow and the sword and the battle out of the land" (Hosea 2:18), the beating of "swords into plowshares, and .... spears into pruning-hooks" (Isaiah 2:4; Micah 4:3).

10. War in the New Testament:

Among the signs of the last days given by our Lord are "wars and rumors of wars" (Matthew 24:6; Mark 13:7; Luke 21:9; Luke 21:24). Jesus accepts war as part of the present world-order, and draws from it an impressive illustration of the exacting conditions of Christian discipleship (Luke 14:31). He foresees how Jerusalem is to be encompassed with armies and devoted to the bitterest extremities of war (Luke 19:41). He conceives Himself come, not to send peace on earth, but a sword (Matthew 10:34); and declares that they who take the sword shall perish by the sword (Matthew 26:52). The apostles trace war to the selfishness and greed of men (James 4:1); they see, speaking figuratively, in fleshly lusts enemies which war against the soul (1 Peter 2:11); they find in war apt figures of the spiritual struggle and divine protection and ultimate victory of the Christian (Romans 7:23; Romans 8:37; 2 Corinthians 10:3,2 Corinthians 10:5; 1 Timothy 1:18; Hebrews 13:13; 1 Peter 1:5), and of the triumphs of Christ Himself (2 Corinthians 2:14; Colossians 2:15; Ephesians 2:16,Ephesians 2:17). Paul made the acquaintance of the barracks, both at Jerusalem and at Caesarea (Acts 21:34,Acts 21:37; Acts 23:35); and at Rome his bonds became familiar to the members of the Praetorian guard who were from time to time detailed to have him in keeping (Philippians 1:13). It is under the figures of battle and war that John in the Apocalypse conceives the age-long conflict between righteousness and sin, Christ and Satan, and the final triumph of the Lamb, who is King of kings, and Lord of lords (Revelation 16:14–16; Revelation 17:14; Revelation 19:14). For other references see ARMY, 9; PRAETORIAN GUARD; TREATY.

LITERATURE.

Benzinger, article "Kriegswesen" in Herzog, Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche(3), XI; Nowack, Hebraische Archaeologie, 72; Browne, Hebrew Antiquities, 44-47.

T. Nicol

Ward

word: "Ward" and "guard" are two different spellings of the same word, and in consequence no clear line can be drawn between them. English Versions of the Bible, however, has used "guard" only in the sense of "a special body of soldiers" (Genesis 37:36, etc.), while "ward" is used, not only in this sense (Jeremiah 37:13; contrast 39:9), but also in a variety of others. So a "ward" may mean "any body of men on special duty," as 1 Chronicles 9:23; the King James Version 1 Chronicles 26:16; Nehemiah 12:24,Nehemiah 12:25 (the Revised Version (British and American) "watch"), or the duty itself, as Isaiah 21:8; 1 Chronicles 12:29 the King James Version (the Revised Version (British and American) "allegiance"); 1 Chronicles 25:8; 1 Chronicles 26:12 (the Revised Version (British and American) "office," margin "ward"); Nehemiah 12:45; Nehemiah 13:30 (the Revised Version (British and American) "charge"). Or "ward" may mean "guarded place," always in the phrase "put in ward." the Revised Version (British and American) has kept this phrase throughout (Genesis 40:3, etc.), changing it only in Ezekiel 19:9, where "cage" better carries out the figure of the context.

The distinction of the older English between "watch" and "ward," as applying respectively to the night and to the day seems unknown in English Versions of the Bible. Compare Isaiah 21:8.

The affix "-ward," denoting direction and still used in such forms as "toward," "northward," etc., had a much wider range in Biblical English. So, "to God-ward" (Exodus 18:19; 2 Corinthians 3:4; 1 Thessalonians 1:8); "to thee-ward" (1 Samuel 19:4); "to us-ward" (Psalms 40:5; Ephesians 1:19; 2 Peter 3:9 the King James Version); "to you-ward" (2 Corinthians 1:12; 2 Corinthians 13:3; Ephesians 3:2; 2 Peter 3:9 the Revised Version (British and American)); and in Exodus 37:9, the King James Version "even to the mercy seatward" (the Revised Version (British and American) "toward the mercy-seat").

Burton Scott Easton

Wares

warz (maqqachah, mekher, mimkar, kin`ah, ma`aseh, `izzabhon, keli):

(1) maqqachah, something received or purchased (Nehemiah 10:31);

(2) mekher, "price" or "pay," value, merchandise (Nehemiah 13:16);

(3) mimkar, a "selling," the thing sold (Nehemiah 13:20);

(4) kin`ah, a "package," hence, wares (Jeremiah 10:17);

(5) ma`aseh, "transaction," activity, property, possession, work, occupation, thing made, deed, business (Ezekiel 27:16,Ezekiel 27:18);

(6) `izzabhon, "selling," trade, revenue, mart, letting go for a price (Ezekiel 27:33);

(7) keli, a "prepared" something, as an implement, tool, weapon, utensil, armor, furniture, sack, vessel, hence, wares (Jonah 1:5).

In most cases the real sense is merchandise (see MERCHANDISE). "That which did not a little amuse the Merchandizers (in Vanity-Fair) was, that these Pilgrims set very light by all their Wares; they cared not so much as to look upon them" (Bunyan, The Pilgrim's Progress).

William Edward Raffety

Warfare

See WAR, WARFARE.

Warp

worp (shethi (Leviticus 13:48–59)): The long threads fixed into the loom to form the basis of the web, and into which the woof is wrought from the shuttle. The warp and the woof lying at right angles to one another have in their Hebrew form (shethi we`erebh) given to modern Jewish speech a secret expression to designate the cross.

See WEAVING.

Wars Of Yahweh (The Lord) Book Of The

worz.

See BIBLE, IV, 1, (1), (b).

Wash; Washing

wosh, wosh'-ing: The two usual Hebrew words for "wash" are rachats, and kabhac, the former being normally used of persons or of sacrificial animals (Genesis 18:4, etc., often translated "bathe"; Le 15:5, etc.), and the latter of things (Genesis 49:11, etc.), the exceptions to this distinction being few (for rachats, 1 Kings 22:38 margin; for kabhac, Psalms 51:2,Psalms 51:7; Jeremiah 2:22; Jeremiah 4:14). Much less common are duach (2 Chronicles 4:6; Isaiah 4:4; Ezekiel 40:38) and shataph (1 Kings 22:38; Job 14:19; Ezekiel 16:9), translated "rinse" in Leviticus 6:28; Leviticus 15:11,Leviticus 15:12. In Nehemiah 4:23 the King James Version has "washing" and the Revised Version (British and American) "water" for mayim, but the text is hopelessly obscure (compare the Revised Version margin). In the Apocrypha and New Testament the range of terms is wider. Most common is nipto (Matthew 6:17, etc.), with aponipto in Matthew 27:24. Of the other terms, louo (Susanna verses 15,17; John 13:10, etc.), with apolouo (Acts 22:16; 1 Corinthians 6:11) and the noun loutron (Sirach 34:25b; Ephesians 5:26; Titus 3:5), usually has a sacral significance. On baptizo (Sirach 34:25a; Mark 7:4; Luke 11:38), with the noun baptismos (Mark 7:4 (text?); Hebrews 9:10), see BAPTISM. In Luke 5:2; Revelation 7:14; Revelation 22:14 the Revised Version (British and American) occurs pluno, while Judith 10:3 has perikluzo. Virtually, as far as meaning is concerned, all these words are interchangeable. Of the figurative uses of washing, the most common and obvious is that of cleansing from sin (Psalms 51:2; Isaiah 1:16, etc.), but, with an entirely different figure, "to wash in" may signify "to enjoy in plenty" (Genesis 49:11; Job 29:6; the meaning in So 5:12 is uncertain). Washing of the hands, in token of innocence, is found in Deuteronomy 21:6; Matthew 27:24.

The "washing balls" of Susanna verse 17 (smegma, a very rare word) were of soap.

See SOAP.

Burton Scott Easton

Washing Of Feet

The Old Testament references (Genesis 18:4; Genesis 19:2 Genesis 24:32; Genesis 43:24; Judges 19:21; 1 Samuel 25:41; 2 Samuel 11:8; Song of Songs 5:3; Psalms 58:10) show that the washing of the feet was the first act on entering the tent or house after a journey. The Orientals wore only sandals, and this washing was refreshing as well as cleanly. In the case of ordinary people, the host furnished the water, and the guests washed their own feet, but in the richer houses, the washing was done by a slave. It was looked upon as the lowliest of all services (1 Samuel 25:41). Jesus pointedly contrasts Simon's neglect of even giving Him water for His feet with the woman's washing His feet with tears and wiping them with her hair (Luke 7:44). On the last evening of His life, Jesus washed the disciples' feet (John 13:1–16). Their pride, heightened by the anticipations of place in the Messianic kingdom whose crisis they immediately expected, prevented their doing this service for each other. Possibly the same pride had expressed itself on this same evening in a controversy about places at table. Jesus, conscious of His divine dignity and against Peter's protest, performed for them this lowliest service. His act of humility actually cleansed their hearts of selfish ambition, killed their pride, and taught them the lesson of love. See also The Expository Times, XI, 536 f.

Was it meant to be a perpetual ordinance? John 13:15, with its "as" and the present tense of the verb "do," gives it a priori probability. It has been so understood by the Mennonites and the Dunkards. Bernard of Clairvaux advocated making it a sacrament. The Pope, the Czar, and the Patriarch of Constantinople wash the feet of 12 poor men on Maundy Thursday; so did the English kings till James II, and it is still practiced in the royal palaces of Madrid, Munich and Vienna. But the objections to such an interpretation are overwhelming: (1) It is never referred to in the Synoptic Gospels, the Ac or the Epistle; 1 Timothy 5:10 refers only to lowly service to the saints. (2) It was first in the 4th century (compare Ambrose and Augustine) that it became the custom to wash the feet of the baptized on Maundy Thursday. (3) Ritualizing such an act of love absolutely destroys its meaning. (4) No large body of Christians has ever received it as a sacrament or an ordinance.

F. L. Anderson

According to the Belief and Practice of the Church of the Brethren

1. Practice:

Feet-washing is always practiced in connection with the Agape and the Lord's Supper. This entire service is usually called "Love Feast." These Love Feasts are always held in the evening (in conformity to the time of Jesus' Last Supper). Preparatory services on self-examination are held either at a previous service or at the opening of the Love Feast. Each church or congregation is supposed to hold one or two Love Feasts annually. No specified time of the year is set for these services. Before the supper is eaten all the communicants wash one another's feet; the brethren by themselves, and likewise the sisters by themselves.

(1) The Mode.

In earlier years the "Double Mode" was practiced, where one person would wash the feet of several persons and another would follow after and wipe them. At present the "Single Mode" is almost universal, wherein each communicant washes and wipes the feet of another. Hence, each one washes and wipes the feet of other, and in turn has this same service performed to himself.

(2) The Salutation.

Feet-washing is also accompanied with the "Holy Kiss." As soon as one has finished washing and wiping the feet of another, he takes him by the hand and greets him with the "holy kiss," usually with an appropriate benediction as: "God bless you," or "May the Lord bless us."

2. Scriptural Basis for Feet-Washing:

There are three texts in the New Testament referring to feet-washing (Luke 7:36–50; John 13:1–17; 1 Timothy 5:10).

(1) Jesus Washing the Disciples' Feet (John 13:1–17).

"At supper time" (deipnou genomenou) Jesus arose, laid aside His garments (himatia = "outer garments"), girded Himself with a towel, poured water into a basin, and began to wash and wipe the feet of the disciples.

(2) Peter's Objection.

"Simon Peter .... saith unto him, Lord, dost thou wash my feet (su mou nipteis tous podas)? Jesus answered .... What I do thou knowest not now; but thou shalt understand hereafter. Peter saith unto him, Thou shalt never wash my feet." Whereupon Jesus said: "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me."

(3) Jesus Explains.

Peter now goes to the other extreme and desires complete washing. Jesus answers "He that is bathed (leloumenos, from louo, "to bathe entire body") needeth not save to wash (niptein--"to wash a part of the body") his feet." Jesus was not instituting a new symbol to take the place of baptism, to cleanse the entire person, but clearly distinguishes between the bathing (louo) of the entire body and the partial cleansing needed after the bath (baptism or immersion).

(4) The Command.

"If I then, the Lord and the Teacher, have washed your feet, ye also ought to wash one another's feet" (John 13:14, kai humeis opheilete allelon niptein tous podas), "I have given you an example (sign, symbol, hupodeigma), that ye also should do as I have done to you" (John 13:15). "If ye know these things, happy (or "blessed" the Revised Version (British and American), makarioi) are ye if ye do them" (ean poiete auta). No language is clearer, and no command of Jesus is stronger than this. Furthermore, no symbol is accompanied with a greater promise. Note also, "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me."

3. The Meaning of the Symbol:

(1) Negatively.

(a) It cannot be explained as necessity or custom, i.e. that the dust must be washed from the feet of the disciples before proceeding with the supper. It was so cold that Peter had to warm himself, and this is sufficient evidence that they wore shoes instead of sandals at this time. Furthermore, Peter did not understand the action of Jesus, hence, it could not have been customary. Most of all, Jesus was not scrupulous about keeping the customs or practices of the Jews; compare Jesus' breaking of the Jewish Sabbath (Mark 2:23–26); the Jewish fasts (Mark 2:18–22); the Jewish cleansings (Mark 7:1–20). (b) It was not customary for the host to wash the feet of the guests. Peter objected, and Jesus told him distinctly that he could not understand at the time (arti), but would afterward (meta tauta). The symbol had a deeper meaning.

(2) Positively.

(a) Feet-washing symbolizes humility and service. The apostles had been quarreling as to who would be greatest in the kingdom which they thought Jesus was about to set up (Luke 22:24–30). Most authorities agree that this quarrel took place before the supper. Peter's question. "Dost thou wash my feet?" shows clearly that his objection lay principally in this, that Jesus, the Lord and Master, should perform such humble service. But Jesus was trying all the time to teach His disciples that true greatness in His kingdom is humility and service. "I am in the midst of you as he that serveth" (Luke 22:27; compare Matthew 5:5; Matthew 23:11,Matthew 23:12). Humility and service are fundamental virtues in the Christian life. To wash the feet of another symbolizes these virtues in the same way that the Eucharist symbolizes other Christian virtues. (b) Cleansing: Jesus clearly distinguished between the first cleansing which cleanses the whole person, and the washing of a part of the body. Baptism is the new birth, which means complete cleansing. But after baptism we still commit sins, and need the partial cleansing as symbolized by feetwashing. Compare Bernard of Clairvaux: "Feet-washing is cleansing of those daily offenses which seem inevitable for those who walk in the dust of the world" (sed pedes (abluti sunt) qui aunt animae affectiones, dum in hac pulvere gradimur, ex toto mundi ease non possunt).

4. Practised by the Church of the Brethren:

Feet-washing is practiced by the Church of the Brethren for the following reasons:

(1) Jesus washed His disciples' feet and said, "I have given you an example, that ye also should do as I have done to you" (John 13:15).

(2) Jesus said, "Ye also ought ("are bound," opheilete) to wash one another's feet" (John 13:14).

(3) "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me" (John 13:8),

(4) "If ye know these things, blessed are ye if ye do them" (John 13:17).

(5) Feet-washing symbolizes humility and service, which are fundamental virtues.

(6) Feet-washing symbolizes cleansing from the sins committed after baptism.

LITERATURE.

For the Church of the Brethren: C. F. Yoder, God's Means of Grace; R. H. Miller, The Doctrine of the Brethren Defended; tracts issued by the Brethren Publishing House, Elgin, III. For history of feet-washing, see ERE, V; New Sch-Herz Eric of Religious Knowledge, IV, 4; Smith and Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, articles "Baptism," "Maundy Thursday."

Daniel Webster Kurtz

Washpot

wosh'-pot (sir rachats, "vessel for washing"): Only Psalms 60:8 = 108:9, "Moab is my washpot"; i.e. "Moab is my chattel, to betreated contemptuously," as the vessel in which the conqueror's feet are washed.

Wasp

wosp.

See HORNET.

Watch

woch ('ashmurah, 'ashmoreth; phulake): A division of the night. The night was originally divided into three watches (Judges 7:19), but later into four, as we find in the New Testament (Matthew 14:25; Mark 6:48). We do not know the limits of the watches in the first division, but the middle watch probably began two hours before midnight and ended two hours after. The fourfold division was according to the Roman system, each of which was a fourth part of the night.

See TIME.

"Watch" is also the guard placed on watch (mishmar, Nehemiah 4:9; koustodia, from Latin custodia, Matthew 27:65,Matthew 27:66; Matthew 28:11). It sometimes refers to the act of watching, as in 2 Kings 11:6,2 Kings 11:7 (mishmereth); Luke 2:8 (phulake).

"Watch" is also used figuratively, as in Psalms 141:3 for restraint: "Set a watch, O Yahweh, before my mouth" (shomrah).

See WARD.

H. Porter

Watch-Tour

woch'-tou-er (mitspeh (Isaiah 21:8; 2 Chronicles 20:24); bachan (Isaiah 32:14 the Revised Version (British and American))): In Isaiah 2:16 the words sekhiyoth ha-chemdah have puzzled the translators. the King James Version gives "pleasant pictures," the Revised Version (British and American) "pleasant imagery," while the Revised Version margin has "pleasant watchtowers." Guthe in Kautzsch's Bible translates Schaustucke, which practically agrees with the Revised Version (British and American).

See MIZPEH; TOWER.

Watcher

woch'-er (Aramaic 'ir, "wakeful one"): In Nebuchadnezzar's dream (Daniel 4:13,Daniel 4:17,Daniel 4:14,Daniel 4:20)) a messenger who with "a holy one" descended from heaven, they having joint authority to issue decrees. In the apocryphal literature the doctrine of the "watchers" is much elaborated. In Jubilees they are regarded as angels sent to instruct mankind in righteousness. In Enoch they sometimes appear as archangels and at other times as fallen angels. In the latter condition only we find them in the Book of Adam and Eve. The place of descent was according to Enoch 6:6 the summit of Mt. Hermon.

W. M. Christie

Watchman

woch'-man (tsopheh, shomer, metsappeh, notser): Used to designate a sentinel on the city walls (2 Samuel 18:25; 2 Kings 9:18; Psalms 127:1; Isaiah 62:6) or on the hilltops (Jeremiah 31:6). Song of Songs 3:3; Song of Songs 5:7 introduces another class, "the watchmen that go about the city," and thus, it would seem, points to some system of municipal police. The distinction in meaning between the various words is clear, tsopheh having the idea of "outlooker" and notser that of "careful watcher" (being applied even to besiegers from outside: Jeremiah 4:16, "watchers"), while shomer also embraces the idea of "defending" or "guarding." In Isaiah 21:6 metsappeh is to be taken generally in the sense of "watch." In Sirach 37:14 skopos, means simply "looker."

W. M. Christie

Water

wo'-ter (mayim; hudor):

(1) The Greek philosophers believed water to be the original substance and that all things were made from it. The Koran states, "From water we have made all things." In the story of the creation (Genesis 1:2) water plays an elemental part.

(2) Because of the scarcity of water in Palestine it is especially appreciated by the people there. They love to go and sit by a stream of running water. Men long for a taste of the water of their native village (1 Chronicles 11:17). A town or village is known throughout the country for the quality of its water, which is described by many adjectives, such as "light," "heavy," etc.

(3) The rainfall is the only source of supply of water for Palestine. The moisture is carried up from the sea in clouds and falls on the hills as rain or snow. This supplies the springs and fountains. The rivers are mostly small and have little or no water in summer. For the most part springs supply the villages, but in case this is not sufficient, cisterns are used. Most of the rain falls on the western slopes of the mountains, and most of the springs are found there. The limestone in many places does not hold the water, so wells are not very common, though there are many references to them in the Bible.

(4) Cisterns are usually on the surface of the ground and vary greatly in size. Jerusalem has always had to depend for the most part on water stored in this way, and carried to the city in aqueducts. A large number of cisterns have been found and partially explored under the temple-area itself. The water stored in the cisterns is surface water, and is a great menace to the health of the people. During the long, dry summer the water gets less and less, and becomes so stagnant and filthy that it is not fit to drink. In a few instances the cisterns or pools are sufficiently large to supply water for limited irrigation.

See CISTERN.

(5) During the summer when there is no rain, vegetation is greatly helped by the heavy dews. A considerable amount of irrigation is carried on in the country where there is sufficient water in the fountains and springs for the purpose. There was doubtless much more of it in the Roman period. Most of the fruit trees require water during the summer.

(6) Many particular wells or pools are mentioned in the Bible, as: Beersheba (Genesis 21:19), Isaac's well (Genesis 24:11), Jacob's well (John 4:6), Pool of Siloam (John 9:7), "waters of Nephtoah" (Joshua 15:9).

(7) Washing with water held a considerable place in the Jewish temple-ceremony (Leviticus 11:32; Leviticus 16:4; Leviticus 17:15; Leviticus 22:6; Numbers 19:7; Exodus 30:18; Exodus 40:7). Sacrifices were washed (Exodus 29:4; Leviticus 1:9; Leviticus 6:28; Leviticus 14:5).

(8) The lack of water caused great suffering (Exodus 15:22; Deuteronomy 8:15; 2 Kings 3:9; Psalms 63:1; Proverbs 9:17; Ezekiel 4:11; Lamentations 5:4).

See also FOUNTAIN; PIT; POOL; SPRING; WELL.

Alfred H. Joy

Water Of Bitterness (Or Of Jealousy)

See ADULTERY, (2).

Water Of Separation (Or Of Uncleanness)

See DEFILEMENT; SEPARATION; UNCLEANNESS.