Apocrypha – Arabah

Apocrypha

The term ‘Apocrypha’ is applied to a body of literature that has come down to us in close connexion with the canonical books of the Bible, and yet is not of them. This term (Gr. apokrypkos, ‘hidden’) seems to have been used to specify certain documents or writings that were purposely hidden from general public contact, either because of their supposed sacredness, or to retain within the precincts of a certain sect their secret wisdom and knowledge. The name was given either by those who hid the books or by those from whom they were hidden.

All such books bore, as their alleged authors, the names of notable men in Hebrew history. These names were not sufficient of themselves to carry the books over into the canonical collection of the Bible. The term applied to them as ‘apocryphal,’ that is, withheld from public gaze and use, was at first rather complimentary to their character. But their rejection by the Jewish Palestinian body of worshippers, as well as by the larger proportion of the early Church, gradually stamped the name ‘apocryphal’ as a term of reproach, indicating inferiority in content and a spurious authorship. Henceforth such books lost their early sacredness, and became embodied in a collection that remained entirely outside the Hebrew Bible, though in general found in the Septuagint and the Vulgate.

The word ‘Apocrypha,’ as used by Protestant Christians, signifies the books found in the Latin Vulgate as over and above those of the Hebrew OT. Jerome incorporated in his revision and translation, in the main as he found them in the Old Latin Version, certain books not found in the Hebrew canonical writings. These books had been carried over into the Old Latin from the Septuagint.

The real external differences, then, between the Protestant and Rom. Cath. Bibles to-day are to be traced to the different ideas of the Canon on the part of the Jews of Palestine, where the Hebrew Bible was on its native soil, and on the part of the Jews of Alexandria who translated that same Hebrew Bible into Greek. With this translation, and other books later called the Apocrypha, they constructed a Greek Bible now called the Septuagint (the Seventy).

In the transfer of the works from the Septuagint to the Old Latin and to the Vulgate, there is some confusion both as to their names and their order.

These so-called Apocryphal books may be roughly classified as follows: —

1. Historical: Firat and Second Maccabees, and First Esdras [Third Esdras in Vulgate] .

2. Legendary: Additions to Esther, History of Susanna, Songof the Three Holy Children, Bel and the Dragon, Tobit, Judith.

3. Prophetical: Baruch (ch. 6 being the ‘Epistle of Jeremy’), Prayer of Manasses.

4. Apoealypiical: Second Esdras [Fourth Esdraa in Vulgate].

5. Didactic: Sirach, Wisdom of Solomon.

In some classifications Third and Fourth Maccabees are included.

Most of these books are found in their original form in Greek, with the exceptions noted below, and not in the Hebrew; therefore the Jewish religious leaders did not regard them as inspired. Furthermore, some of their writers (1 Maccabees 4 9:27. 2 Maccabees 2:23) disclaim inspiration as the Jews understood it. The NT writers do not quote these books, nor do they definitely refer to them. Their existence in the Greek Bible of the times of Christ does not seem to have given them any prestige for the Jewish authorities of that day. The Church Fathers made some use of them, by quotation and allusion, but were not so emphatic in their favour as to secure their incorporation in the regular canonical books of the Bible.

Jerome, in his revision of the Old Latin Bible, found the Apocryphal books therein, as carried over from the Septuagint; but in his translation of the OT he was careful not to include in the OT proper any books not found in the Hebrew Canon. In fact, he regarded his time as too valuable to be spent in revising or translating these uninspired books.

It was not until the Council of Trent, April 15, 1546, that the Roman Catholic Church publicly set its seal of authority on eleven of the fourteen or sixteen (including3 and 4 Mac.) Apocryphal books. This Council names as canonical the following books and parts of books: First and Second Maccabees, Additions to Esther, History of Susanna, Song of the Three Holy Children, Bel and the Dragon, Tobit, Judith, Baruch, Sirach, and Wisdom of Solomon; omitting from the above list the Prayer of Manasses, First and Second Esdras [Vulgate Third and Fourth Esdras].

The Council of Trent settled the Canon of Scripture for the Roman Catholic Church, and decreed an anathema against any one who did not agree with its statement. Even before the meeting of that famous Council, Coverdale, in 1535, had introduced the Apocrypha into the English Bible edited by himself. It was published in the first edition of the AV in 1611, but began to be left out as early as 1629’. It was inserted between the OT and NT. As a result of a controversy in 1826, it was excluded from all the Bibles published by the British and Foreign Bible Society.

In our discussion of the character and contents of these books, we must keep in mind the tact that the word ‘Apocrypha’ is used in the Protestant sense as inclusive of the fourteen books given in the RV of 1895, eleven of which are regarded as canonical by the Roman Catholic Church.

The general character and the contents of these books are as follows: —

1. First Maccabees. —This is a historical work of rare value on the Jewish war of independence against the encroachments and invasions of Antiochus Epiphanes (B.C. 168-164). Its author is unknown, though thought to have been a Jew of Palestine, who wrote between B.C. 105 and 64. The book is known in a Greek original, though it was translated, according to Jerome, from a Hebrew original that was current in his day (end of 4th cent.).

2. Second Maccabees is an abridgment of a five-volume work by Jason of Cyrene {2’^). It is prefaced by two letters said to have been sent from the Jews of Jerusalem to the Jews of Egypt. This book deals with the history of the Jews from the reign of Seleucus iv. (b.c. 176) to the death of Nicanor (b.c. 161). The multiplication of the marvellous and miraculous in the narrative discounts the value of the material as a source of historical data. The book was written somewhere between b.c. 125 and the fall of Jerusalem in a.d. 70. It is extant in Greek.

3. First Esdras (Third in the Vulgate) is the canonical book of Ezra in Greek, which in reconstructed form tells the story of the decline and fall of the kingdom of Judah from the time of Josiah. It recites the overthrow of Jerusalem, the Babylonian exile, the return under Zerubbabel, and Ezra’s part in the reorganization of the Jewish State. Josephus refers to the legend regarding the three courtiers contained in this book. Its author is unknown. The Council of Trent placed it in an appendix to the NT as Third Esdras, and not among their regular canonical books.

4. Additions to Esther. — The canonical Esther concludes with IQS; this chapter is filled out by the addition of seven verses, and the book concludes with six additional chapters (11-16). The regular text of the book is occasionally interpolated and amplified by some writer or writers, to give the story a fuller narrative and make the telling of it more effective. These additions sometimes contradict the Hebrew, and add nothing new of any value. This editorial work is thought to have been done by an Egyptian Jew somewhere in the reign of Ptolemy Philometor (b.c. 181-145).

6. The History of Susanna is an account of Daniel’s discovery of a malicious slander against the good woman Susanna. The story is prefixed to the book of Daniel. It is found in the Greek, and was prepared by an unknown author at an unknown date.

6. The Song of the Three Holy Children is found inserted between v. 23 and v. 24 of Daniel 3. Its author and date are unknown.

7. The Story of Bel and the Dragon follows Daniel 12. It is a proof by Daniel that the priests of Bel and their families ate the food set before the idol. Daniel slays the dragon, and is a second time thrown into the lions’ den. The origin of this story is unknown, though it is by some attributed to Habakkuk. The three preceding stories are found in the Septuagint of Daniel, and a MS of No. 6 has recently been found.

8. Tobit is a romantic story of the time of Israel’s captivity. Tobit is a pious son of Naphtali who becomes blind. He sends his son Tobias to Rages in Media to collect a debt. An angel leads him to Ecbatana, where he romantically marries a widow who was still a virgin though she had had seven husbands. Each of the seven had been slain on their wedding-day by Asmodseus, the evil spirit. On the inspiration of the angel, Tobias marries the widow, and, by burning the inner parts of a fish, puts the spirit to flight by the offensive smoke. The blindness of Tobit is healed by using the gall of the fish, the burning of whose entrails had saved the lite of Tobias. The book is found in an Aramaic version, three Greek, and three Old Latin versions, and also in two Hebrew texts. Its date is uncertain, though it doubtless appeared before the 1st cent. b.c.

9. Judith is a thrilling tale of how Judith, a Jewish widow, secured the confidence of Holofernes, an Assyrian commander who was besieging Bethulia. Stealthily in the night time she approached him in his tent, already overcome with heavy drinking, took his own scimitar and cut off his head, and fled with it to the besieged city. This valorous act saved the distressed Israelites. The story bristles with absurdities in names, dates, and geographical material.- It seems to have imitated in one respect Jael’s murder of Sisera (Judges 4:17–22). It may have been written some time about b.c. 100, so long after the life of Nebuchadrezzar as to have made him king of Nineveh, instead of Babylon. The original text is Greek.

10. Baruch. — This is a pseudepigraphical book attributed to Baruch, the scribe of Jeremiah. Its purpose seems to have been (1) to quiet the souls of the Jews in exile by telling them that they would soon return to their native land; and (2) to admonish them to flee the idolatry that was everywhere prevalent in Babylonia. Baruch 6 is called the ‘Epistle of Jeremy’ and is nominally a letter of that prophet, warning the exiles against worshipping idols. Tills book is thought to have originated sometime about b.c. 320. Its original language is Greek, tiiougli ttiere is reason for believing that l’-38 was first written in Hebrew.

11. Prayer of Manasses, king of Judah, when he was a captive of Ashurbanipal in the city of Babylon {2 Ch 33:12, 13). It probably originated in some of the legends current regarding this notable king, and may have been intended for insertion in the narrative of 2 Chronicles 33:13. Its original is Greek. It is not a part of the Vulgate adopted at the Council of Trent, but is in the appendix thereof.

12. Second Esdras [yul&- Fourth Esdras. If First Esdras is the reconstructed Ezra, and the canonical Ezra and Nehemiah are taken as one book, then this is Third Esdras (as in the Septuagint). If Ezra and Nehemiah are left out of account, this book is Second Esdras (as in the Apocrypha of BV). It, as in the Vulgate, Ezra is reckoned as First Esdras, and Nehemiah^ as Second Esdras, and the reconstructed Ezra as TMrC Esdras, then this book is Fourth Esdras]-: This work is a peculiar combination of matter. It is not history at all, but rather a religious document imitative of the Hebrew prophets, and apocalyptic in character. Its Greek original, if it had one, has been lost, and the work is extant in Latin, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic, and Armenian. It is attributed to at least two different dates, the 2nd and 3rd cents, a.d. The character of the matter shows that some Christian interpolated the original to give it a Christian colouring. This matter does not appear, however, in the Arabic and Ethiopic texts. It stands in the appendix to the NT of the Vulgate.

13. Ecclesiasticus, or. The Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach, — This is one of the most valuable of the Apocryphal books. It resembles the books of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job in its ethical characteristics. It was written by a Jew called Jesus, son of Sirach, probably early in the 3rd cent., though the Greek translation was issued about b.c. 132. The book was originally written in Hebrew, and in this language about one half of it has recently been discovered in Egypt and^published. It is one of the works that give us a vivid idea of the Wisdom literature produced in the centuries preceding the Christian era.

14 . Wisdom of Solomon lauds wisdom and a righteous life, but condemns idolatry and wickedness. The author employs, in the main, illustrations from the Pentateuch. He purports to be Solomon, and makes just such claims as one would imagine Solomon would have done if he had been the author. He is thought to have lived anywhere between b.c. ISO and b.c. SO, and to have been a Jew of Alexandria. The book possesses some valuable literary features, though in its present form it seems to be incomplete. Its original text was Greek.

If we should include Third and Fourth Maccabees in this list, as is done by some writers (but not by the Vulgate), we find these peculiarities:

15. ThirdMaccabees describes anattempt to massacre the Jews in the reign of Ptolemy Philopator (b.c. 222- 205), and a notable deliverance from death. The work is extant in Greek (in LXX), but not in the Vulgate.

16. Fourth Maccabees is a discussion of the conquest of matter by the mind illustratively, by the use of the story of the martyrdom of the seven Maccabees, their mother and Eleazar. The work is found in the Alexandrian MS of the Septuagint, and in Syriac.

In addition to these Apocryphal books, but not included either in the Septuagint, the Vulgate, or the RV, there is an ever-increasing list of works that scholars have chosen to call pseudepigrapha. These were written at various periods, but mainly just before, during, and just after the times of Christ. Many of them deal with the doctrinal discussions of their day, and present revelations to the author under strange and even weird conditions. These writers attached to their books as a rule the name of some famous personage, not by way of deception, but to court favour for the views set forth. It would carry us too far afield to take up these works one by one. Merely the titles of some of them can be mentioned. As a piece of lyrical work the Psalms of Solomon is the best example in this group. Of apocalyptical and prophetical works, there are the Book of Enoch, quoted in Jude, the Assumption of Moses, the Apocalypse of Baruch, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. Legendary works are the Book of Jubilees and the Ascension of Isaiah. One of the curious cases of mixed material is that of the Sibylline Oracles. See Apocalyptic Literature.

To these might be added scores of lesser lights that appeared in that period of theological and doctrinal unrest, many of which are now published, and others are being discovered in some out-of-the-way place almost yearly. Their value Ues in the revelations that they give us of the methods adopted and the doctrines promulgated in the early centuries of the Christian era, by means of such works. Ira Maurice Price.

Apocryphal Gospels

See Gospels [Apocryphal].

Apollonia

Apollonia (Acts 17:1). Paul and Silas passed through this town on the way from Amphipolis to Thessalonica. It is known that it was on the important Egnatian road which ran between Dyrrhachium (mod. Durazzo) and Thessalonica, but its exact site lias not yet been discovered. It was about half-way between AmphipoUs and Thessalonica, and lay between the rivers Axius and Strymon.

A. SOUTEE.

Apollonius

1. A governor of Ccele-Syria and Phoenicia under Seleucus iv. (2 Maccabees 4:4). who suggested the abortive attempt of Heliodorus on the Templetreasury. To this he probably owes the title mysarches (2 Maccabees 5:24). which the Vulg. renders odiosum principem, AV ‘detestable ringleader,’ RV ‘lord of pollutions.’ In B.C. 168-167 he was sent to Hellenize Jerusalem, and he initiated the great persecution with a cruel massacre on the Sabbath (2 Maccabees 5). Judas Maccabeeus defeated and slew him, wearing his sword ever after (1 Maccabees 3:10 ff.: Jos. A»«. XII. vii. 7). 2. An envoy sent to Egypt by Antiochus iv., b.c. 173 (2 Maccabees 4:21). 3. An ofiicial under Antiochus v. who molested the Jews (2 Mac 12:2). 4. A governor of Coele-Syria who fought against the Jews (b.c 147) on the side of Demetrius (1 Mac IQss-ss; Jos. Ant. xiii. iv. 3 f. is in error). From Jamnia he sent a pompous defiance to Jonathan Maccabaeus, who, however, captured Joppa and defeated Apollonius. J. Taylor.

Apollophanes

Apollophanes (2 Maccabees 10:37). A Syrian killed at the taking of Gazara by Judas Maccabaeus.

Apollos

Apollos (a pet name, abbreviated from Apollonius, which appears in D text of Acts 18:24). — Apart from a doubtful reference in Titus 3:13. we derive our knowledge of Apollos from 1 Cor. and Acts 18:24–28. In Acts he is described as an Alexandrian Jew, an eloquent man, with an effective knowledge of the OT. He came to Ephesus before St. Paul sojourned there, and, having been instructed in the way of the Lord, he zealously proclaimed his views in the synagogue, where Priscilla and Aquila heard him. What exactly his views were, it is not easy to decide. Acts 18:25 suggests that he was a Christian in some sense, that he knew the story of Jesus, believed in Him as Messiah, but did not know of the coming of the Holy Ghost. The disciples mentioned in Acts 19:1 ff.: who are clearly in a parallel position, do not seem to know even so much as this; and ‘instructed in the way of the Lord’ need not mean Christianity, while even the phrase ‘the things concerning Jesus’ may refer simply to the Messianic prophecies (cf. Luke 24:27, and see art. ‘Apollos’ by J. H. A. Hart in J ThS, Oct. 1905). In Ephesus, Apollos may have pleached only John’s baptism of repentance. But Priscilla and Aquila made him a full Christian.

Later on Apollos worlced in Corinth, with great success. His eloquence and PhUonic culture won him a name for wisdom, and made his preaching attractive, so that many declared themselves his special followers (1 Corinthians 1:12). Apollos’ teaching in Corinth may have been marked by allegorical interpretation, insistence on Divine knowledge, and on the need of living according to nature (see St. Paul’s sarcastic reference to ‘nature’ in 1 Co 11:14). But the party-strife at Corinth was not of his intending. Apollos and Paul were agreed in their gospel (1 Corinthians 3:8) — a fact the Corinthians overlooked. Apollos refused the request of the Corinthians for a speedy second visit (1 Corinthians 16:12). St. Paul apparently speaks of Apollos as an Apostle (1 Corinthians 4:9). We have no certain records of Apollos’ teaching, but it has been suggested that he wrote the Wisdom of Solomon before, and the letter to the Hebrews after, his conversion.

H. G. Wood.

Apollyon

(‘the Destroyer’). The Greek equivalent In Bev 9" of Abaddon, the angel of the bottomless pit, who was also the king of the locusts (see Abaddon). The word does not appear in its Greek form in later Babbinic writings, and only here in the NT. As an angel Apollyon seems to have been regarded as equivalent to Asmodaeus, king of demons, in Judaistic mythology; but our data are too few to warrant precise statements. Shailer Mathews.

Apoplexy

See Medicine.

Apostasy

A defection from the tenets of some religious community. In Acts 21:21 it describes the charge brought against St. Paul by the Jews, viz., that he taught that the Jews should abandon Mosaism. In 2 Thessalonians 2:3 it describes the defection of Christians which was to accompany the ‘man of lawlessness’; i.e. the Antichrist. This expectation is an illustration of whaA seems to have been a common belief — that the return of the Christ to establish His Kingdom would be preceded by exceptional activity on the part of His superhuman opponent, and that this would result in an abandonment of Christian faith on the part of many of those nominally Christian. Shailer Mathews.

Apostles

Apostle, ‘one commissioned,’ represents a Heb. word which signified not merely a messenger but a delegate, bearing a commission, and, so far as his commission extended, wielding his commissioner’s authority. ‘The Apostle of any one,’ says the Talmud, ‘is even as the man himself by whom he is deputed.’ The term was applied by Jesus to the twelve disciples whom He attached to Himself to aid Him in His ministry and to be trained by the discipline of His example and precept for carrying it on after His departure (Luke 6:13. Matthew 10:2). Cf. John 17:18 ‘Even as thou didst commission me unto the world, I also commissioned them unto the world’ (where ‘commission’ is the verb cognate to ‘Apostle’).

Jesus appointed twelve Apostles corresponding to the twelve tribes, thus intimating that their mission was meanwhile to Israel (cf. Matthew 10:5, 6) but by and by, when He was setting out on His last Journey to Jerusalem, He ‘appointed other seventy and commissioned them’ (Luke 10:1). thus intimating the universality of His gospel, inasmuch as, according to Jewish reckoning, mankind was composed of seventy nations.

After the Lord’s departure the Twelve were the Apostles par excellence (cf. Acts 6:2, 6). They were the men who had been with Jesus, and their peculiar function was to testify of Him, and especially of His Resurrection (Acts 1:21, 22; cf. V.8 and Luke 24:48). But they were not the only Apostles. The title was given to Barnabas (Acts 14:4, 14, 1 Corinthians 9:5, 6) and Andronicus and Junias (Romans 16:7). It may be that it was extended to men of Apostolic character, but then why was it withheld from one like Timothy (2 Corinthians 1:1. Colossians 1:1) If Barnabas, as tradition declares, and Andronicus and Junias, as Origen suggests, belonged to the order of the Seventy, it may well be that those others besides the Twelve who were styled ‘Apostles’ were the Seventy. It is true the title is given to James the Lord’s brother (Galatians 1:19. 1 Corinthians 15:7) and to Paul, who belonged neither to the Twelve nor to the Seventy. But theirs were exceptional cases. It was natural that James, who was recognized as the head of the Church at Jerusalem, should be accorded the dignity of Apostleship, as well for his extreme sanctity as tor his relationship to Jesus. And as for Paul, his Apostolic title was bitterly contested; and he triumphantly defended it on the double ground that, though he had not companied with Jesus in the days of His flesh, he had seen Him after His glorification on the road to Damascus (1 Corinthians 9:1), and though he was not one of the original Apostles, his Apostleship had the Lord’s own sanction (1 Corinthians 9:2. 2 Corinthians 12:12). Perhaps it was his example that emboldened others outside the ranks of the Twelve and the Seventy to claim Apostleship on the score of Apostolic gifts, real or supposed (2 Corinthians 11:13. Revelation 2:2). See also Disciples. David Smith.

Apothecary

In all the 8 occurrences of this word in OT and Apocr. we should render ‘perfumer,’ as does BV in half of these (Exodus 30:25, 35 37:29, ec 10:1) elsewhere the former is retained (2 Chronicles 16:14, Neh .3* (cf. marg.), Sirach 38:8 49:1). see Peefumeb.

A. R. S. Kennedy.

Appaim

A man of Judah (1 Chronicles 2:30, 31).

Apparel

See Dress.

Apparition

In RV of Matthew 14:26 and Mark 6:49 for AV ‘spirit.’ The Gr. word (phantasma) differs from the usual word for ‘spirit’ ipneuma). It occurs only in these passages.

Appeal

See Justice.

Apphia

A Christian lady of Colossi, a member of the household of Philemon, probably his wife (Philemon 2).

Apphus

Apphus (1 Maccabees 2:5). The surname of Jonathan the Maccabee. The name is usually thought to mean ‘dissembler’; and some suppose that it was given to Jonathan for his stratagem against the tribe of the Jambri, who had killed his brother John (1 Maccabees 9:37–41).

Appii Forum

Acts 28:15 AV; RV ‘The Market of Appius.’ See next article.

Appius, Market of

A market-town (without city rights) on the Appian Way, 10 Roman miles from Tres Taberncs (Three Taverns), near the modern railway station, Foro Appio. As the Appian Way was the main road from Rome to the south and east of the Roman Empire, it was traversed by nearly all travellers from or to those parts (Acts 28:15). A Souteh.

Apple

That the apple (tappuah) of the OT is the fruit known by that name to-day is extremely doubtful. It is true that the tree in size and foliage would answer to the reference in Song of Songs 8:5. Joel 1:12; the fruit too in its sweetness (Song of Songs 2:3) and its smell (Ca is very appropriate. It is also suggestive that Heb. tappuah closely resembles the Arabic for ‘apple,’ tuff ah. On the other hand, it is a substantial difBculty that the apple does not grow well in Palestine proper, as distinguished from the Lebanon. The native fruit is small and wanting in sweetness; almost all eatable apples are imported from the North. In consequence of this, several fruits which to-day are found in Palestine have been suggested. The citron, a favourite with the Jews on account of its smell and golden colour, is certainly a more recent introduction The apricot, suggested by Tristram, which flourishes in parts of Palestine in greater profusion than any other fruit, would seem to answer to the references well. It IS dehciously sweet, with a pleasant smell, and, when npe, of a brilliant golden colour. The tree is one of the most beautiful in the land, and when loaded with ‘Its golden fruit might well suggest the expression’ apples of gold in pictures of silver’ (Proverbs 25:11). Unfortunately there is considerable doubt whether this tree, a native of China, was known in Palestine much before the Christian era. A fourth fruit has been suggested, namely, the quince. This is certainly a native of the land, and is common all over Palestine. The fruit, when ripe, though smelling pleasantly, is not ‘sweet’ according to our ideas, but even to-day is much appreciated. It is a great favourite when cooked, and is extensively used for making a delicious confection. The quince, along with the true apple, was sacred to Aphrodite, the goddess of love.

E. W. G. Mastehman.

Apple of the Eye

Apple of the eye (Ut. ‘child or daughter of the eye,’ i.e. that which is most precious [the organ of sight], and most carefully guarded [by the projecting bone, protecting it as far as possible from injury]). — A figure of God’s care of His people (Deuteronomy 32:10. Psalms 17:8. Zee 2:8). and of the preciousness of the Divine law (Proverbs 7:2). In Lamentations 2:18 it is the source of tears. C. W. Emmet.

Apron

See Dress.

Aqitila Amd Peisoiila

The names of a married couple first mentioned by St. Paul in 1 Corinthians 16:19. and by St. Luke in Acts 18:2. Only in these passages do the names occur in this order; in later references the order is always ‘Priscilla and Aquila’ (Acts 18. rq 16:3. 2 11 4:19). A natural inference from this fact is that Priscilla was a more active worker in the Christian Church than her husband. In favour of this view is the statement of Chrysostom (i. 306 D, 177 A, iii. 176 B, C) that it was Priscilla’s careful expositions of ‘the way of God’ (Acts 18) that proved so helpful to Apollos. On this testimony Harnack bases his ingenious but doubtful theory that Priscilla was the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews. From the prominence given in Roman inscriptions and legends to the name Prisca (St. Paul) or its diminutive Priscilla (St. Luke), Hort concludes that she belonged to a distinguished Roman family (Rom. and Eph. p. 12 ft.). Aquila was a Jew of Eastern origin — ‘a man of Pontus by race’ (Acts 18:2).

From Rome, Aquila and Priscilla were driven by the edict of Claudius (a.d. 52). As the unrest among the Jews, which led to their expulsion, arose ‘through the instigation of Chrestus,’ it is not improbable that Aquila and Priscilla were at least sympathizers with Christianity before they met St. Paul. On this supposition their ready welcome of the Apostle to their home at Corinth is most easily explained. Their hospitality had a rich reward; both in private and in public they were privileged to listen to St. Paul’s persuasive reasonings (Ads’"). Nor was the advantage all on one side; from these ‘fellow- workers in Christ Jesus’ (Romans 16:3) it is probable, as Ramsay suggests (Hastings’ DB i. p. 482), that the Apostle of the Gentiles learnt ‘the central importance of Rome in the development of the Church. . . . We may fairly associate with this friendship the maturing of St. Paul’s plan for evangelizing Rome and the West, which we find already fully arranged a little later (Ac 19. Romans 15:24).

At the close of St. Paul’s eighteen months’ residence in Corinth, Aquila and Priscilla accompanied him to Ephesus. At their house Christians assembled for worship, and, according to an early gloss (DG ai) on 1 Corinthians 16:19. the Apostle again lodged with them. At Ephesus they remained whilst St. Paul visited Jerusalem ; there Apollos, the eloquent Alexandrian, profited greatly from their ripe Christian experience, and learnt, from one or both of them, the secret of power in ministering the gospel of grace (Acts 18:26 ff.) there also it is probable that they made ‘the churches of the Gentiles’ their debtors by risking their lives in defence of St. Paul. The allusion to this courageous deed is in Romans 16:3. and from this passage we learn that Aquila and Priscilla sojourned for a while in Borne, where once more their hospitable home became a rendezvous for Christians. This statement affords no ground for disputing the integrity of the Epistle. Their former connexion with Rome, their interest in the Church of Christ in the imperial city, and their migratory habits, rather furnish presumptive evidence in favour of such a visit. From these trusted friends St. Paul may have received the encouraging tidings which made him ‘long to see’ his fellow-believers in Rome (Romans 1:11). The last NT reference to this devoted pair shows that they returned to Ephesus (2 Timothy 4:19) their fellowship with Timothy would, doubtless, tend to his strengthening ‘in the grace that is in Christ Jesus’ (2:1). J. G. Taskeb.

Aquila's Version

See Greek Vehsions.

AR. — A city on the Arnon, the border between Moab and the Amorites (Numbers 21. Deuteronomy 2:9). now Wady MBjib. It is called Ar Moab (Numbers 21:28. Isaiah 15:1). ‘/ Moab (Numbers 22:36). and’ the city that is in the valley’ (Deuteronomy 2 etc.). It is possibly the ruin seen by Burckhardt in the valley below the junction of the Lejjnn and the MSjib.

W. EWINQ.

Ara

A descendant of Asher (1 Chronicles 7:38).

Arab

(Joshua 15). A city of Judah in the mountains near Dumah. Perhaps the ruin er-Rabiyah near Domeh.

Arabah

The name given by the Hebrews to the whole of the great depression from the Sea of Galilee to the Gulf of Akabah. (For the part N. of the Dead Sea, see Johdan.) The name is now applied only to the southern part, extending from a line of white cliffs that cross the valley a few miles S. of the Dead Sea. The floor of the valley, about 10 miles broad at the N. end, gradually rises towards the S., and grows narrower, until, at a height of 2000 feet above the Dead Sea, nearly opposite Mt. Hor, the width is only about i mile. The average width thence to Akabah is about 5 miles. The surface is formed of loose gravel, stones, sand, with patches of mud. Up to the level of the Red Sea everything indicates that we are traversing an old seabottom. Apart from stunted desert shrub and an occasional acacia, the only greenery to be seen is around the springs on the edges of the valley, and in the wadys which carry the water from the adjoining mountains into the Wady el-Jaib, down which it flows to the Dead Sea. The great limestone plateau, et- Tlh, the Wilderness of Paran, forms the western boundary, and the naked crags of Edom the eastern. Israel traversed the Arabah when they went to Kadesh-barnea, and again when they returned to the south to avoid passing through the land of Edom (Numbers 20:21 21:4. Deuteronomy 2:8).

W. EWINQ.