Armour, Arms – Ascalon

Armour, Arms

The soldier’s arms, offensive and defensive, are never so termed in our EV ; ‘armour,’ ‘whole armour’ (Ephesians 6:11 [Gr. panopUa], the ‘harness’ of 2 Maccabees 15:28. j{,v ‘full armour’), and more frequently ‘weapons of war’ are the terms employed. In RV ‘harness’ in this sense has in most cases given place to ‘armour.’

1. Offensive arms. — In a familiar representation from an Egyptian tomb of date c. B.C. 1895, a band of Semitic nomads are depicted with the primitive arms of their race— the short spear, the bow, and the throw-stick — the last perhaps the handstaves of Ezekiel 39. In OT the principal arms of attack are the sword, the spear, the javelin, the bow, and the sling, (a) The spear cltaims precedence as an oWer weapon than the sword. The normal Hebrew form, the chanith, had a stout wooden shaft with a flint, bronze, or iron (1 Samuel 13:19) head, according to the period. Like the spear of the modern Bedouin sheikh, it figures as a symbol of leadership in the case of Saul (1 Samuel 22:6 26:7. cf. 18:10 ff. RV). The rBmach appears to have been a lighter form of spear, a lance, and to have largely supplanted the heavier spear or pike in later times (Nehemiah 4:13, 16. Joel 3:10). Both are rendered ‘spear’ in EV. (6) The Hdon vi&s shorter and lighter than either of the above, and was used as a missile, and may be rendered javelin (Jos 8 E.V, Job 41:29 RV ‘the rushing of the javelin’) or dart. The latter term is used as the rendering of several missile weapons, of which the precise nature is uncertain.

(c) The sword had a comparatively short, straight blade of iron (1 Samuel 13:21. Isaiah 2:4). and was occasionally two-edged (Psalms 149:6. Hebrews 4:12). Ehud’s weapon, only 18 inches long, was rather a dagger (Judges 3:16 AV, RV ‘sword’). The sword was worn on the left side in a leather or metal sheath (1 Samuel 17:51). attached to a waist-belt or girdle (1 Samuel 17 25:13. 2 Samuel 20:8 rv). It occurs frequently in symbol and metaphor in both OT and NT. It is appropriately the symbol of war, as the plough-share is of peace (Isaiah 2:4, Micah 4:3. Joel 3:10). In NT the word of God is described as a two-edged sword (Hebrews 4:12), and by St. Paul as the ‘sword of the Spirit’ (Ephesians 6:17).

(d) The bow is common to civil (Genesis 21:20) and military life, and vies in antiquity with the spear. It was made of tough, elastic wood, sometimes mounted with bronze (Psalms 18:34 RV, Job 20:24). Horn also was used for bows in ancient times, and those with the double curve seem to have been modelled on the horns of oxen. The bow-string was usually of px-gut, the arrows of reed or light wood tipped with fiint, bronze, or iron. The battle bows (Zee 9:10 10:4), at least, must have been of considerable size — the Egyptian bow measured about 5 ft. — since they were strung by pressing the foot on the lower end, while the upper end was bent down to receive the string into a notch. Hence the Heb. expressions ‘to tread (= string) the bow,’ and ‘bow-treaders’ for archers (Jeremiah 50:14, 29). The arrows, ‘the sons of the quiver’ (Lamentations 3:13, RV shafts), were carried in the quiver, which was either placed on the back or slung on the left side by a belt over the right shoulder.

(c) The sling was the shepherd’s defence against wild beasts (1 Samuel 17:40). as well as a military weapon (2 Kings 3 and often). The Hebrew sling, lilce those of the Egyptians and Assyrians, doubtless consisted of a long narrow strip of leather, widening in the middle to receive the stone, and tapering to both ends. At one end was a loop by which the sUng was held as the slinger swung it round his head, while the other end was released as the stone was thrown. The Benjamites were specially noted for the accuracy of their aim (Judges 20:16).

(t) The battle axe (Jeremiah 51:20. RVm maul; cf. Proverbs 25:18). lit. ‘shatterer’ (no doubt identical with the ‘weapon of his shattering,’ Ezekiel 9:2 [RVm ‘battle axe’l), was probably, as the etymology suggests, a club or mace of hard wood, studded with iron spikes, such as was carried by the Assyrians in the army of Xerxes (Herod, vii. 63). See Rich, Diet, of Ant., s.v.’ Clava.’

2. Defensive arms. — (a) First among the arms of defence must be placed the shield, of which two main varieties are common to all periods, the small shield or buckler (magen), and the large shield (.sinnah), the target of 1 Kings 10: The distinction between these is rarely preserved in our EV (.e.g. Jeremiah 47:3 — in Psalms 35:2. Ezekiel 23:24 they are reversed), but the relative sizes of the two kinds may be seen in the passage of 1 Kings just cited, where the targets or large shields each required four times as much gold as the smaller buckler. ‘These, however, were only for state processions and the like (14. but cf. 1 Maccabees 6:39). The mOgen was the ordinary light round shield of the ancient world, ^he Roman clypeus] the zinnah was the scutum or kirge ODlong shield which more effectively protected Its bearer against the risks of battle. The normal type of both was most probably made of layers of leather stretched on a frame of wood or wickerwork, since’ both the shields and the bucklers’ might be burned (Ezekiel 39:9). The shield, as a figure of God’s protecting care, is a favourite with the religious poets of Israel (Psalms, passim). St. Paul also in His great military allegory introduces the large Grieco-Roman shield (Ephesians 6:16).

(6) Of the shapes of the Hebrew helmets we have no information. Kings and other notables wore helmets of bronze (1 Samuel 17). but those prepared by Uzziah for ‘air the host’ (2 Chronicles 26:14 RV) were more probably of leather, such as the monuments show to have been worn by the rank and file of other armies until supplanted in the Greek age by bronze, for the elite of the infantry at least (1 Maccabees 6:35).

(c) The same difference of material — ^bronze for the leaders, leather for the common soldier — holds good for the cuirass or coat of mail (1 Samuel 17). The latter term takes the place in RV of the antiquated habergeon (2 Chronicles 26:14. Nehemiah 4:16). and brigandine (Jeremiah 46:4 Sl»). The cuirass, which protected both back and front, is also intended by the breastplate of Isaiah 59:17 (RVm ‘coat of mail’), 1 Maccabees 3:3, 1 Thessalonians 5:8. Ephesians 6:14. Goliath’s coat of mail was composed of scales of bronze, and probably resembled the Egyptian style of cuirass described and illustrated by Wilkinson (.Anc. Egyp. [1878] i. 219 ff.). This detail is not given for Saul’s cuirass (1 Samuel 17:38). Ahab’s ‘harness’ consisted of a cuirass which ended in ‘tassels’ or flaps, the ‘lower armour’ of 1 Kings 22:34 RVm. The Syrian war-elephants were protected by breastplates (1 Maccabees 6:43). and probably also the horses of the Egyptian cavalry (Jeremiah 46:4).

(d) Greaves of bronze to protect the legs are mentioned only in connexion with Goliath (1 Samuel 17:6). The military boot is perhaps referred to in Isaiah 9:5 (RVm).

The armourbearer is met with as early as the time of Abimelech ( Judges 9:54). ) , and later in cormexion with Jonathan, Saul, and Goliath, and with Joab, who had several (2 Samuel 18:15). TMs office was held by a young man, like the squire of medieeval knighthood, who carried the shield (1 Samuel 17:7). cuirass, the reserve of darts (2 Samuel 18:14). and other weapons of his chief, and gave the coup de grace to those whom the latter had struck down (1 Samuel 14:13).

An armoury for the storage of material of war is mentioned by Nehemiah (3:19). but that this was built by David can scarcely be inferred from the difficult text of Song of Songs 4:4. Solomon’s armoury was ‘the house of the forest of Lebanon’ (1 Kings 10:17, Isaiah 22:8). The Temple also seems to have been used for this purpose (2 Kings 11:10). See further the articles Aemy, Fortification and SlEOGCBAFT, WaK. A. R. S. KENNEDY.

Armoubbeabeb, Aruotjry

See Armour.

Abut

1. In default of a strong central authority; an army in the sense of a permanently organized and disciplined body of troops was an impossibility among the Hebrews before the establishment of the monarchy. The bands that followed a Gideon or a Jephthah were hastily improvised levies from his own and neighbouring clans, whose members returned with their share of the spoil to their ordinary occupations when the fray was at an end. The first step towards a more permanent arrangement was taken by Saul in his operations against the Philistines (1 Samuel 13:2, cf. 14). David, however, was the first to establish the nucleus of a standing army, by retaining as a permanent bodyguard 600 ‘mighty men’ (their official title) who had gathered round him in his exile (1 Samuel 23:13 30:9. 2 Samuel 10:7 16). To these were added the mercenary corps of the Cherethites and Pelethites (wh. see), and a company of 600 Gittites (2 Samuel 15:18). Apart from these, David’s armies were raised by levy as before, but now from the whole nation, hence the technical use of ‘the people’ in the sense of ‘the army’ (2 Samuel 20:12 and often). Solomon’s organization of his kingdom into administrative districts(1 K 4:7 ff.) doubtless included matters of army administration (cf. v. 28 9 10).

2. The organization of the Hebrew army was by units of thousands, originally associated with the civil divisions of the same name, with subdivisions of hundreds, fifties, and tens (1 Samuel 8:12 17:18 22:7. 2 Kings 1:9 ff. 11:4). an arrangement which continued into the Maccabsean period (1 Maccabees 3:55). Each of these divisions had its special ‘captain.’ The whole was under the supreme command of the ‘captain of the host.’ The relative positions and duties of the shOterlm (AV ‘officers’) and other military officials are quite uncertain. The former appear to have been charged with keeping and checking the lists of the quotas to be furnished by the various districts (Deuteronomy 20:5 ff.).

3. The army wa;S composed in early times entirely, and at all times chiefiy, of infantry, the bulk of whom were armed with the spear or pike and the large shield or target (see Armour). The archers carried a sword and buckler (1 Chronicles 5:18). and with the slingers (2 Chronicles 26:14) made up the .light Infantry. Chariots, although long before a vital part of the forces of the surrounding nations, were first introduced into the Hebrew army by Solomon (1 Kings 4:26 9:22 lO""-; see Chariot, Horse).

4. The period during which a citizen was liable for military service extended from his twentieth (Numbers 1:3. 2 Chronicles 25:5) to his fiftieth year (Jos. Ant. ni. xii. 4). Exemption was granted in the cases specified in Deuteronomy 20:5 ff.; at least under the Maccabees (1 Maccabees 3:56), and to the members of the priestly caste (Numbers 2:33).

6. As regards maintenance, each city and district had doubtless to supply its own quota with provisions, in so far as these were not drawn from the enemy’s country. The soldier’s recompense consisted In his share of the loof, the division of which was regulated by the precedent of 1 Samuel 30:24. The first mention of regular pay is in connexion with the army of Simon Maccabseus (1 Maccabees 14:32). Foreign mercenaries figure largely in the armies of the later Maccabeean princes and of Herod. No reference has been made to the numbers of the Hebrew armies, since these have in so many cases been greatly corrupted in transmission.

For methods of mobilization, tactics, etc., see War, also Fortification and Siegecbaft; and for the Koman army in NT times see Legion.

A. R. S. Kennedy.

Arna

One of the ancestors of Ezra (2 Esdras 1:2). corresponding apparently to Zerahiah of Ezra 7:4 and Zaraias of 1 Esdras 8:2.

Arnan

A descendant of David (1 Chronicles 3:21).

Arni

(AV Aram). An ancestor of Jesus (Luke 3:33). called in Matthew 1:3, 4 Ram (RV). Cf. Ruth 4:19. 1 Chronicles 2:9, 10.

Arnon

A valley with a stream in its bed, now called Wadv d-Mojib, which gathers the waters from many tributary vales — the ‘wadys’ (AV ‘brooks,’ RV ‘valleys’! of Arnon (Numbers 21) — as it flows westward to the Dead Sea. It was the N. border of Moab. cutting it off from the land of the Amorites in old time (Nu21i3 etc.), and later, from that of the Eastern tribes (O os 12:1 etc.). It is named in Isaiah 16:2 (‘the fords of Arnon’) and Jeremiah 48:20 (where the reference may be to the inhabitants of the valley, or to a city of that name now unknown). Mesha made the ‘high way in Arnon,’ and built (possibly ‘fortified’) Aroer (Moabite Stone). This ‘high way’ probably followed the line of the Roman road, traces of which still remain, with indications of a bridge, some distance W. of Aroer — the modern ‘Ar’air, or ‘Ar’ar, which stands on the N. bank. W. Ewing.

Arod

A son of Gad (Numbers 26:17) Genesis 46:16. Patronymic Arodites (Numbers 26:17).

Aroer

Three distinct places. 1. ‘Aroer which is by the brink of the river Arnon’ (Deuteronomy 2:36) is probably the ruin ‘Ara’ir, on the north~bank of the Wady Mojib (Arnon). In such a position it necessarily became a frontier town, and as such is mentioned (cf. Deuteronomy 2. 2 K 10 etc.). It was captured by Sihon, king of the Amorites (Deuteronomy 2:36 4:48. Joshua 12:2 and 13:9. Judges 11:26) when conquered by.Israel it was assigned to Reuben (Deuteronomy 3:12) ; it was taken by Hazael, king of Syria (2 Kings 10:33). and apparently later on by Moab (Jeremiah 48:19). 2. A city of Judah (1 Samuel 30:28). perhaps the ruin’ Ar’ ara, 12 miles east of Beersheba. 3. A city of Gad near Rabbah, i.e. ‘Amman (Joshua 13:25. Judges 11:33). The site is unknown.

E. W. G. Masterman.

Arom

(1 Esdras 5:16). His descendants are mentioned among those who returned with Zerubbabel. The name has no parallel in the lists of Ezr. and Neh., unless it represents Hashum in Ezra 2:19.

Arfaghshad

Arfaghshad was, according to Genesis 10:22. the third son of Shem, and, according to ll^", he was the second in the line of descent from Shem to Abraham. Genesis 10:22 is an enumeration of peoples (or countries) descended from Shem , from which Babylonia or Chaidsea is absent in the present text. The latter portion of the word furnishes Chesed (cf. Genesis 22:22). which is the singular form of Chasdim (Chaldees). Probably two words in the original of lO^^ were combined into one, the latter being Chesed and the former Arpach, which is a region south-west of Assyria, possibly the same as the Arrapachitis of Ptolemy. The mistaken reading in Iff’! was then taken as the basis of l l’""-. J. F. McCurdy.

Arpad

A city of Syria north-west of Aleppo (2 Kings 18:34 1915, Isaiah 10:9 36:19 37:13. Jeremiah 49:23). Now the ruin Tell Erfud.

Arphaxad

1. A king of the Medes (Judith 1:1 ff.). He reigned at Ecbatana, which he strongljf fortified. Nebuchadrezzar, king of Assyria, made war upon him, defeated him, and put him to death. 2. The spelling of Arpachshad in AV, and at Luke 3 by RV also. See Abpachshad.

Arrow

See Armour, and Magic Divination, etc.

Arrowsnake

(Isaiah 34 RV). See Owl, Serpent.

Arsaces

A king of Parthia (known also as Mithridates i.). When opposed by Demetrius Nikator, who thought the people would rise in his favour and afterwards assist him against Tryphon, he deceived Demetrius by a pretence of negotiations, and in b.c. iSs took

52 him prisoner (1 Maccabees 14:1–3; Justin, xxxvi. 1). In 1 Mao 15:22 Arsaces is mentioned among the kings to whom was sent an edict (Jos. Ant. xiv. viii. 5) from Rome forbidding the persecution of the Jews.

Arsiphttrith

Arsiphttrith (AV Azephurith), 1 Esdras 5:16. 112 of his sons returned with Zerubbabel. The corresponding name in Ezra 2:18 is Jorah; and in Nehemiah 7:24 Hariph.

Art

Among the Hebrews the fine arts, with the possible exception of music, were not seriously cultivated(cf. Architecture). The law of Exodus 20:4 constituted an effective bar to the development of the plastic art in particular. As to the nature and workmanship of the early ephods (Judges 8 17:5) and teraphim (Genesis 31:19, Judges 17:5. 1 Samuel 19:13 RV), as of the ‘graven images’ and the later ‘molten images,’ we can only speculate. Sculpture in wood, but of Phoenician workmanship, both in relief (1 K m- ") and in the round (v. 23 ff.). found a place in the ‘Temple of Solomon. The only specimens yet discovered of’ genuine Israelite’ sculpture (according to the discoverer. Professor Sellin) are the beardless human heads (cherubim ?), foreparts of lions and other motifs that adorn the unique altar of incense from Taanach (illust. PEFSt, 1904, 390).

Of painting there is no trace in OT. The coloured representations which Ezekiel saw with abhorrence on the Temple walls were not true paintings, but, as the original implies, figures chiselled in outline, with the contours filled in with vermilion (Ezekiel 23:14 f.; cf. 8). The* decorative work on pure Hebrew pottery was practically confined to geometrical designs. Of the minor arts, gem-engraving must have attained considerable development (Exodus 28:11). The finest product of modern excavation in Palestine in the domain of art is probably the Hebrew seal with the lion marchant found at Megiddo (see Seals). Mention may also be made of the filigree and other gold work implied in such passages as Exodus 28:11 f.: The products of the Hebrew • looms must also have shown considerable artistic merit (Exodus 26:1). gee, further, Jewels, Music, Seals, Temple, Spinning and Weaving. A. R. S. Kennedy.

Artaxerxes

Artaxerxes is the Greek form of the Old Persian Artakhshatra, the Hebrew being ArtachshasUS). The Artaxerxes of the Bible is Artax. Longimanus (b.c. 465- 424), son of Xerxes (Bibl. Ahasuerus). By him Ezra was permitted to go to Jerusalem from Babylon and restore the affairs of the Jewish community (Ezra 7:1 ff. S’). He also favoured the similar mission of his cup-bearer Nehemiah thirteen years later (Nehemiah 2:1 5:14 13:6). The events narrated in Ezra 4:7 ff. and said to have occurred in the time of Artaxerxes must have taken place during an earlier reign, probably that of Cambyses, unless, indeed, they are to be regarded as unhlstorical. His regime was more important for Israel than that of any other king of Persia except Cyrus the Liberator.

J. F. McCURDY.

AiRTEMAS.— A trusted companion of St. Paul, in the later part of his life (Titus 3:12). There is no evidence for the statements of Dorotheus (^Bibl. Maxima, Lugd.1677, iii. p. 429) that he had been one of the 70 disciples, and was afterwards bishop of Lystra.

Artemis

Acts 19:24, 27 RVra. See Diana.

Artificer

See Arts and Crafts.

Artillery

1 Samuel 20:40 AV (in obsol. sense, of Jonathan’s Bow and arrows; RV ‘weapons’); 1 Mac 6"‘- (see Fortification, § 7).

Arts and Crafts

One of the most characteristic distinctions between the Hebraic and the Hellenic views of life is found in the attitude of the two races to manual labour. By the Greek it was regarded as unworthy of a free citizen; by the Jew it was held in the highest esteem, as many Talmudic aphorisms bear witness. The general term in OT for craftsman (2 Kings 24:14. Jeremiah 24:1 RV), artificer (1 Chronicles 29), or skilled artizan is charash, from a root meaning " to cut.’ Most Irequently, however, it Is qualified by the name of the material. This suggests the following divisions. [In RV ‘craft’ has been displaced by the more modern ‘trade’].

1 . Workers in wood. — The productions of the ‘worker in timber’ (1 Chronicles 22:15), elsewhere in OT carpenter (also Matthew 13:55, Mark 6:3). probably surpassed in variety those of any other craftsman, for they comprised not only those of the modern carpenter and cabinetmaker, but also of the ploughwrlght, woodcarver, and other specialized arts and crafts of to-day. His tools cannot have differed much from the tools of his Egyptian contemporaries described and illustrated by Wilkinson (Anc. Egyp., see Index). Various axes are named in OT. For one variety the text distinguishes between the iron head and the wooden helve (Deuteronomy 19:5). Another is from the context probably an adze (Jeremiah 10:3). while a third appears as a hatchet in Psalms 74:6 RV. The carpenter’s hammer (Jeremiah 10:4) was rather a wooden mallet (cf Judges 4:21) ; his saw (Isaiah 10:15). to judge from analogy and from the excavations, was single-handed, and of bronze in the earlier period at least. Holes were bored with a drill worked as in the present day by a bow and string. In Isaiah 44:13 are further named the measuring line (AV ‘rule’), the sharp metal pencil (AV ‘line’) oi stylus for outlining the work, the planes, which were more probably chisels, and the compasses (RV).

2. Workers in metal. — The principal metals of OT times are enumerated in Numbers 31:22. The ‘brass’ of OT, however, is probably always bronze, i.e. copper with an alloy of tin, except where pure copper is intended, as Deuteronomy 8:9. The excavations have shown that iron makes its appearance in Palestine about the beginning of the monarchy (c. b.c. 1000), although bronze continued in use for several centuries, and was ‘not fully conquered tillthe period of the captivity’ (PEFSt, 1904, 122). The coppersmith (2 Timothy 4:14). ‘artificer in brass’ (Genesis 4:22 AV), ‘worker in brass’ (1 Kings 7:14). as he is variously termed, was thus the chief metal worker of the earlier period. For the more artistic handling of copper the Hebrews were at first dependent on PhcEnician craftsmen (1 K 7). Later, as we have seen, the ironsmith (1 Samuel 13:19), or ‘worker in iron’ (2 Chronicles 24:12). supplanted the coppersmith. The tools of both were the hammer (Isaiah 44:12) and the anvil (Isaiah 41:7. Sirach 38:28) the latter probably then as now ‘a boot-shaped piece of metal inserted in a section of an oak or walnut log’ — the tongs (Isaiah 44:12) and the bellows (Jeremiah 6:29). For the goldsmith and the silversmith see Mining and Metals, s.w. ‘Gold’ and ‘Silver.’ The smiths carried away by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings 24:14. Jeremiah 24:1) were probably those specially skilled in the manufacture of weapons of war.

3. Workers in stone. — From the far-off palaeolithic days man has been a ‘worker in stone,’ a term confined in OT to those who cut and dressed stone for building purposes (1 Chronicles 22:15). The more usual rendering is masons (2 Samuel 5:11. 1 Chronicles 14:1). References are given to various processes, such as the ‘hewing out ‘(I K S" RV) of the stones in the quarry (6:7 RV), the’ hewing’ of wine-vats (Isaiah 5:2 RV) and tombs (22:16) in the solid rock, the cutting and dressing of ‘hewn stones’ for various constructions (Exodus 20:25. 1 Kings 5:17. 2 Kings 2:12. Amos 5:11). The stone-squarers of 1 Kings 5:18 ( AV) were rather men from the Phoenician city of Gebal (RV ‘Gebalites’), experts in this branch of industry. The builders (Psalms 118:22) worked from a prepared plan or model (Exodus 25:9. 1 Chronicles 28:11. EV pattern), using the measumig-reed (Ezekiel 40:3) and the plumbline (Amos 7:7) or plummet (2 Kings 21:13. Zee 4:10). The large hammer used in quarrying ( Jeremiah 23:29) ) is different from the smaller hammer of the stone-cutter (1 Kings 6:7). The axe of the last passage is rather the pick for stonedressing, and was the tool used in cutting in the Siloam tunnel as the workmen tell us in their famous inscription. For the ‘engraver in stone’ of Exodus 28:11 see Seals.

4. Workers in clay. — Clay, not stone, was the ordinary building material among the Hebrews (see House). Brickmaking, however, was too simple an operation to

53 attain the dignity of a special craft in OT times, as was also ‘plaisteriug’ with clay (Leviticus 14:42) or lime (Daniel 5:5. cf. Matthew 23:27 and Acts 23:3 ‘whited wall’). It was otherwise with the potter and his work, perhaps the oldest of all crafts, for which see Pottehy.

5. Workers in leather. — First among these is the tanner (Acts 9:43). who prepared the leather from the skins of domestic and other animals, including the marine dugong (Exodus 25:5. RV ‘seal,’ AV ‘badger’). The hair was removed by means of lime, or the acrid juices of plants, applied to the skins after they had been soaked for some time in water. Owing to their uncleanly accompaniments, the tanner and his trade were regarded by the Jews with much disfavour. Like the fuller, he was forbidden to carry on his work within the city, which explains the situation of Simon’s tannery ‘by the sea side (Acts 10:32). In early times the tanner not only supplied the material but probably actually manufactured the leather shields and helmets required by soldiers, while the making of shoes, girdles, and other articles of leather (Leviticus 13). and the preparation of skins for water, wine, and milk (see Bottle) were long matters of purely domestic economy.

6. Trades connected with dress. — The closing words of the preceding paragraph apply equally to the making of the ordinary dress of the Hebrews (cf. 1 Samuel 2:19). The tailor first appears in the Mishna. Certain of the processes, however, gradually developed into separate crafts, such as that of the weaver (Exodus 35:35. 1 Samuel 17:7; see Spinning AND Weaving), the embroiderer (Ex I.e.), whose designs were sewed upon the finished fabric, the dyer and the fuller. From the Mishna it is evident that in NT times the dyers were a numerous body in Jerusalem. The wool was usually dyed before or after being spun (Exodus 35:25). Both animal and vegetable dyes were employed (see Coloubs). The work of the fuller (Isaiah 7:3. Mai 3:2, Mark 9:3) was of two kinds, according as he dealt with the web fresh from the loom, or with soiled garments that had already been worn. The latter he cleaned by steeping and treading in water mixed with an alkaline substance (rendered soap in Mai 3:2) and fuller’s earth. The new web — the ‘undressed cloth’ of Matthew 9. Mark 2:21 RV— on the other hand, after being thoroughly steeped in a similar mixture, was stamped and felted, then bleached with fumes of sulphur, and finally pressed in the fuller’s press. Fulling, like tanning, was carried on outside the towns, but the precise situation of the ‘fuller’s field’ of Isaiah’s day (Isaiah 7:3) is still uncertain. Here may be mentioned the barber (Ezekiel 5:1) and the perfumer (AV ‘apothecary,’ ‘confectionary’), for whom see Hair and Peefumbe respectively.

7. EmploymentsconnectediirUhtood. — Cooks, asaspecial class, were to be found only in the houses of the wealthy (see Food). The Hebrew name shows that they killed as well as cooked the animals. The shambles of 1 Corinthians 10:25. however, are not, as in modern English, the slaughter-house, but the provision-market of Corinth, where meat and other provisions were sold. The bakers were numerous enough to give their name to a street of the capital in Jeremiah’s day (Jeremiah 37:21) for their work see Bread. Public mills employing millers appear late, but are implied in the rendering ‘great millstone’ of Matthew 18:6 RV (cf. marg. and see Hill). The well-known Tyropceonor Cheesemakers’ valley in Jerusalem received its name from the industry carried on there (Jos BJ v. iv. 1).

8. Employments connected with the land. — Most of these are noticed in other connexions; see Agricul- TUEE, Sheep, Vine, etc. The prophet Amos describes himself as ‘a dresser of sycomore trees’ (Amos 7:14 RV), for which see Amos, ad init.

9. Miscellaneous employments. — If to the above there be added the tentmaker, representing the craft (RV ‘trade’) of St. Paul and his friends Aquila and Prisoilla (Acts 18:3. see Tent), and the fisherman (see Nets), no trade or manual employment of importance will, it is hoped, have been overlooked. Most of the remaining employments will be found under their own (e.g. Recorder, Scribe) or kindred titles, as ‘merchant’ under Trade, ‘physician’ under Medicine, etc.

10. Two general characteristics. — This article may fitly close with a brief reference to two characteristics of all the more important handicrafts and employments. The first is still a feature of Eastern cities, namely, the grouping of the members of the same craft in one street or quarter of the city, to which they gave their name. Thus we find in Jerusalem, as has been noted, ‘the bakers’ street,’ ‘the fullers’ field,’ and ‘the cheesemakers’ valley,’ to which should perhaps be added ‘the valley of craftsmen’ CNeh W^). Josephus mentions a smiths’ bazaar, a wool-market, and a clothes-market In the Jerusalem of his day (BJ v. viii. 1).

The second point to be noted is the evidence that the members of the various crafts had already formed themselves into associations or guilds. Thus we read in Nehemiah of a ‘son of the apothecaries,’ i.e. a member of the guild of perfumers (3:8), and of ‘a son of the goldsmiths’(3"). Cf. Ezra 2:42’ the sons of the porters’ and the familiar ‘sons of the prophets.’ In 1 Chronicles 4:21 ff. • there is mention of similar associations of linenweavers and potters, for which see Macalister, ‘The Craftsmen’s Guild,’ etc. PEFSt, 1905, 243 ff. • The expression ‘sons of to denote membership of an association goes back to the days when trades were hereditary in particular families. A guild of silversmiths is attested for Ephesus (Acts 19:25). For the probable earnings of artizans among the Jews see Wages.

A. R. S. Kennedy.

Arubboth

An unknown district, probably in S.W. Palestine (1 Kings 4:10).

ABtnSAH. — The place of refuge of Abimelech (Judges 9:41). perhaps el-‘Ormeh, 6 miles S.E. of NaUus (Shechem). E. W. G. Masterman.

Arvad

Arvad (modern (RuwSd) was the most important of the northerly cities of Phoenicia. It was built on an island 70 miles north of Beyrout — a sort of second Tyre, with another town on the mainland opposite. In Ezekiel 27:8, 11 it is named as furnishing oarsmen for the galleys of Tyre and warriors for its defence. In the ethnological list of Genesis 10:18 (1 Chronicles 1:16) it is mentioned among the chief settlements of the Canaanites or Phoenicians. Throughout antiquity it was a place of renown for trade and general enterprise, ranking next to Tyre and Sidon. It is the Aradus of 1 Maccabees 12:53.

J. F. McCurdy.

Arza

Prefect of the palace at Tirzah, in whose house King Elah was assassinated by Zimri at a carouse (1 Kings 16:9).

Arzaeeth

Arzaeeth (2 Esdras 13). A region beyond the river from which the ten tribes are to return. It became the subject of many later Jewish legends concerning the Sabbatic River beyond which the lost tribes were to be found — variously identified with the Oxus and the Ganges.

Asa

1 . The third king of Judah after the disruption, succeeding Abijah. Since his mother’s name is given as the same with that of Abijah’s mother, some have supposed the two kings to have been brothers. But there may be some mistake in the text. Asa is praised by the Biblical writer for his religious zeal, which led him to reform the worship, and even to depose his mother from her place of influence at court because of her idolatrous practices. Politically he took a mistaken course when he submitted to Benhadad of Damascus to secure his aid against Baasha of Israel, who had captured Ramah. The Temple treasures were sent to Benhadad, who thereupon invaded Israel, and Baasha was compelled to evacuate the threatening fortress (1 Kings 15:9 ff.). The Chronicler (2 Chronicles 14:9 ff.) credits Asa with a victory over an enormous force of Ethiopians. 2. A Levite (1 Chronicles 9:16). H. P. Smith.

Asadias

Asadias (‘J" is kind,’ cf. 1 Chronicles 3:20). An ancestor of Baruch (Baruch 1:1).

A8AHEL. — 1. The youngest son of Zeruiah, David’s sister, and the brother of Joab and Abishai. He was famous for his swiftness of foot, a much valued gift in ancient times. Hebrews 7 one of David’s thirty heroes, probably the third of the second three (2 Samuel 23:24). He was also commander of a division in David’s army (1 Chronicles 27:7). He was slain by Abner (2 Samuel 2:18–23). 2. A Levite, who taught the peoplein the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chronicles 17:8). 3. A subordinate collector of offerings and tithes in the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chronicles 31:13). 4. Father of Jonathan, who opposed Ezra’s action in connexion with the divorce of foreign wives (Ezra 10:15).

Asaiah

(‘J" hath made’). 1. One of the deputation sent by Josiah to consult Huldah the prophetess, 2 K 2212" (AVAsahiah), 2 Ch342». 2. One of the Simeonite princes who attacked the shepherds of Gedor, 1 Chronicles 4:36. 3. A Merarite who took part in bringing the ark to Jerusalem,1 Ch 6:30 15:6, 11. 4. The first-born of the Shilonites, 1 Chronicles 9:5; called in Nehemiah 11:5 Maaseiah.

Asana

(1 Esdras 5:31). His descendants were among the ‘temple servants’ or Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel; called Asnah in Ezra 2:50 [Neh. omits].

Asaph

(‘gatherer’). !. The father of Joah, the ‘recorder’ or chronicler at the court of Hezekiah (2 K 18i>- " etc.). 2. The ‘keeper of the king’s forest,’ to whom king Artaxerxes addressed a letter directing him to supply Nehemiah with timber (Nehemiah 2:8). 3. A Korahite (1 Chronicles 26:1). same as Abiasaph (wh. see). 4. The eponym of one of the three guilds which conducted the musical services of the Temple in the time of the Chronicler(1 Ch 15 ‘6f- etc.). The latter traces this arrangement to the appointment of David, in whose reign Asaph, who is called’ the seer’ (2 Chronicles 29:30). is supposed to have lived. At first the Asaphites alone seemed to have formed the Temple choir, and in the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (wherever we have the memoirs of the latter in their original form) they are not yet reckoned among the Lemtes. At a later period they share the musical service with the ‘sons of Korah’ (see Korahites). Pss 50 and 73-83 have the superscription le-Asaph, which means in all probability that they once belonged to the hymn-book of the Asaphite choir (see Psalms).

Asara

(1 Esdras 5:31). His sons were among the Temple servants or Nethinim who returned under Zerubbabel: omitted in the parallel lists in Ezr. and Neh.

Asaramel

(AV Saramel). A name whose meaning Is quite uncertain (1 Maccabees 14:28). See RVm.

Asarel

(AV Asareel). A son of Jehallelel (1 Chronicles 4:16).

Asbasabeth

Asbasabeth (1 Esdras 5:69). A king of Assyria, probably a corrupt form of the name Eearhaddon, which is found in the parallel passage Ezra 4:2. The AV form Azbazareth comes from the Vulgate.

Ascalon

See Ashkelon.