Assyria and Babylonia (continued) – Athenob

Assyria and Babylonia (continued)

(.1) Sargon. — Shalmaneser iv. seems to have been son of Tiglath-pileser. He was king of Babylonia as Ululai, and succeeded to Tiglath-pileser’ s Empire. In B.C. 724 he began the siege of Samaria, which fell after three years. We have no Assyrian accounts of this reign. Sargon at once succeeded him, but we have no knowledge of his title to the throne. He never mentions his immediate ancestors, nor does Sennacherib, but the latter evidently wished to claim ancient royal descent, and Esarhaddon claimed descent from an early king. That Sargon is called arku, ‘the later," in his own inscriptions may be meant to distinguish him from the great Sargon of Akkad, whose reign he so closely reproduced, orfrom some early Assyrian monarch, Shar-ken (Shar-kenkate-Ashir?). Samaria fell almost immediately (b.c. 722), and the flower of the nation, to the number of 27,290 persons, was deported and settled about Halah on the Habor, in the province of Gozan and in Media (2 Kings 17:6). being replaced by Babylonians and Syrians. Merodach-baladan, a king of Bit lakin, a Chaldsan State in S. Babylonia, who had been tributary to Tiglath-pileser iii., had made himself master of Babylon, and was supported there by Elam. Sargon met the Elamites in a battle which he claimed as a victory, but he had to leave Merodach-baladan alone as king in Babylon for twelve years. This failure roused the West under laubidi of Hamath, who secured Arpad, Simirra, Damascus, and Samaria as allies, supported by Hanno of Gaza and the N. Arabian Musri. Sargon in b.c. 720 set out to recover his power here. At Karkar, laubidi was defeated and captured, and the southern branch of the confederacy was crushed at Baphia. Hanno was carried to Assyria, 933 people deported, Shabi (Sibi, Sewe, So), the Tartan of Piru of Musri, fled, the Arabians submitted and paid tribute. Azuri of Ashdod, who began to intrigue with Egypt, was deposed and replaced by his brother, Ahimitl. A rebellion in Ashdod led to a pretender being installed, but Sargon sent his Tartan to Ashdod (Isaiah 20:1). the pretender fled, and Ashdod and Gath were reduced to Assyrian provinces. Judah, Edom, and Moab staved off vengeance by heavy toll. Sargon’s heaviest task was the reduction of Armenia.. Rusa i. was able to enlist all Upper Mesopotamia, including Mita of Mushki, and it took ten years to subdue the foe. Sargon’s efforts were clearly aided by the incursions of the Gimirri (Gomer) into N. Armenia. Having triumphed everywhere else, Sargon turned his veterans against Babylonia. The change of kings in Elam was a favourable opportunity for attacking Merodach-baladan, who was merely holding down the country by Chaldsean troops. Sargon marched down the Tigris, seized the chief posts on the east, screened off the Elamites and threatened Merodach-baladan’s rear. He therefore abandoned Babylon and fell on Sargon’s rear, but, meeting no support, retreated S. to his old kingdom and fortified it strongly. Sargon entered Babylon, welcomed as a deliverer, and in b.c. 709 became king of Babylon. The army stormed Bit lakin, but Merodach-baladan escaped over sea. Sargon then restored the ancient cities of Babylonia. His last years were crowned with the submission of far-off lands; seven kings of Cyprus sent presents, and Sargon set up a stele there in token of his supremacy. Dilmun, an island far down the Persian Gulf, did homage. Sargon founded a magnificent city, DUr Sargon, modern Khorsabad, to the N.E. of Nineveh. He died a violent death, but how or where Is now uncertain.

(m) Sennacherib. — Sennacherib soon had to put down rebellion in S.E. and N.W., but his Empire was very well held together, and his chief wars were to meet the Intrigues of his neighbours, Elam and Egypt. Babylonia was split up into semi-independent States, peopled by Aramaeans, Chaldseans, and kindred folk, all restless and ambitious. Merodach-baladan seized the throne of Babylon from Marduk-zakir-shum, Sargon’s viceroy, b.c. 704. The Aramseans and Elam supported him. Sennacherib defeated him at Kish, b.c. 703, and drove him out of Babylon after nine months’ reign. Sennacherib entered Babylon, spoiled the palace, swept out the Chaldaeans from the land, and carried off 208,000 people as captives. On the throne of Babylon he set Bel-ibnl, of the Babylonian seed royal, but educated at his court. Merodach-baladan had succeeded in stirring the W., where Tyre had widely extended its power, and Hezekiah of Judah had grown wealthy and ambitious, to revolt. Ammon, Moab, Edom, the Arabians joined the confederacy, and Egypt encouraged. Padi, king of Ekron, a faithful vassal of Assyria, was overthrown by a rebellion in his city and sent in chains to Hezekiah. Sennacherib, early in B.C. 701, appeared on the Mediterranean coast, received the submission of the Phoenician cities, isolated Tyre, and had tribute from Ammon, Moab, and Edom. Tyre he could not capture, so he made Itubal of Sidon overlord of Phoeuicia, and assailed Tyre with the allied fleet. Its king escaped to Cyprus, but the city held out. Sennacherib meanwhile passed down the coast, reduced Ashkelon, but was met at Eltekeh by the Arabians and Egyptians. He gained an easy victory, and captured Eltekeh, Timnath, and Ekron. Then he concentrated his attention upon Judah, captured 46 fortified cities, deported 200,150 people, and shut up Hezekiah, ‘like a bird in a cage,’ in Jerusalem. He assigned the Judsean cities to the kings of Ashdod, Ekron, and Gaza, imposed fresh tribute, and received of Hezekiah thirty talents of gold, eight hundred talents of silver, precious stones, couches of ivory, thrones of ivory, precious woods, his daughters, his palace women, male and female singers, etc., an enormous spoil, which was carried to Nineveh. His siege of Lachish is depicted on his monuments. Before his campaign was over, Merodach-baladan had again appeared in Babylon. A difficulty has always been felt about the destruction of Sennacherib’s army, because, if it took place after this campaign, he could hardly have been so successful in Babylonia. His inscriptions end with B.C. 689, but Esarhaddon’s references to the conquests of his father in Arabia, and a fragmentary reference to Azekah, suggest that he invested Jerusalem again, on a second campaign, and that the destruction occurred then. The Biblical narrative suggests that Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, had already appeared on the scene. This would date the event after B.C. 691. Further, it seems to have occurred soon before his death in B.C. 681.

In Babylonia, Bel-ibni proved unfaithful and was recalled. Ashur-nadin-shum, Sennacherib’s son, was installed as king, and reigned six years. Sennacherib devastated Bit lakin and defeated Shuzub, a Chaldsean king. He then employed Phoenician shipbuilders and Bailors to build ships at Til-barslp, on the Euphrates, and at Nineveh, on the Tigris. He floated his fleets down to the mouth of the rivers, shipped his army, and landed at the mouth of the KarQn, where the Chaldseans had taken refuge, B.C. 695. He sent the captives by ship to Assyria, and marched his army into S. Elam. The king of Elam, however, swooped down on Babylon and carried off Ashur-nadin-shum to Elam. NergalushSzib was raised to the throne, and, aided by Elamite troops, proceeded to capture the Assyrian garrisons and cut off the southern army. Sennacherib retreated to Erech and awaited Nergal-ushSzib, who had occupied Nippur. He was defeated, captured, and taken to Assyria, B.C. 693. The Babylonians now made Shuzub, the Chaldaean, king under the name of Mushgzib-Marduk. A revolution in Elam tempted Sennacherib to invade that country, perhaps in hope of rescuing his son. He swept all before him, the Elamite king retreating to the mountains, but the severe winter forced Sennacherib to retreat, B.C. 692. Mushezib-Marduk and the Babylonians opened the treasury of Marduk to bribe the Elamites for support. A great army of Eiamites, Aramaeans, Chaldaeans, and Babylonians barred Sennacherib’s return at HalQle, on the E. of the Tigris, B.C. 691. Sennacherib claimed the victory, but had no power to do more, and left Mushezib-Marduk alone for the time. He came back to Babylonia in B.C. 690, and the new Elamite king being unable to assist, Babylon was taken, MushSzib-Marduk deposed and sent to Nineveh. Babylon was then sacked, fortifications and walls, temples and palaces razed to the ground, the inhabitants massacred, the canals turned over the ruins, b.c. 689. Sennacherib made Babylonia an Assyrian province, and was king himself till his death (b.c. 681). Thereis reason to think that he appointed Esarhaddon regent of Babylonia; at any rate it seems that this prince began to rebuild Babylon before his father’s death.

Sennacherib chose Nineveh, which had become a second-rate city, as his capital, and, by his magnificent buildings and great fortifications, made it a formidable rival to Calah, Asshur, and even Babylon before Its destruction. His last few years are in obscurity, but he was murdered by his son or sons. See Adrammelech.

(n) Esarhaddon came to the throne b.c 680, after a short struggle with the murderers of his father and their party. He had to repel an incursion of the Cimmerians in the beginning of his reign, and then conquered the Medes. In b.c 677 Sidon was in revolt, but was taken and destroyed, a new city called Kar-Esarhaddon being built to replace it and colonized with captives from Elam and Babylonia, Ezra 4:2. In b.c 676, Esarhaddon marched into Arabia and conquered the eight kings of Bazu and Hazu (Buz and Huz of Genesis 22:21). in b.c ,674 he invaded Egypt, and again in 673. In b.c. 670 he made his great effort to conquer Egypt, drove back the Egyptian army from the frontier to Memphis, winning three severe battles. Memphis surrendered, Tirhakah fled to Thebes, and Egypt was made an Assy rian province. In B.C. 668 it revolted, and on the march to reduce it Esarhaddon died. He divided the Empire between his two sons, Ashurbanipal being king of Assyria and the Empire, while Shamash-shura-ukin was king of Babylon as a vassal of his brother.

(o) Ashurbanipal at once prosecuted his father’s reduction of Egypt to submission. Tirhakah had drawn the Assyrian governors, some of them native Egyptians, as Necho, into a coalition against Assyria. Some remained faithful, and the rising was suppressed ; Tirhakah was driven back to Ethiopia, where he died b.c 664. Tantamon invaded Egypt again, and Ashurbanipal in B.C. 662 again suppressed a rising, drove the Ethiopian out, and captured Thebes. Ashurbanipal besieged Ba’al, king of Tyre, and although unable to capture the city, obtained its submission and that of Arvad, Tabal, and Cilicia. Gyges, king of Lydia, exchanged embassies, and sent Ashurbanipal two captive Cimmerians, but he afterwards allied himself with Psammetichus, son of Necho, and assisted him to throw off the Assyrian yoke. The Minni had been restless, and Ashurbanipal next reduced them. Elam was a more formidable foe. Allying himself with the Aramaeans and ChaldEeans, Urtaku, king of Elam, invaded Babylonia, but he was defeated and his throne seized by Teumman. Ashurbanipal took advantage of the revolution to Invade Elam and capture Susa; and after killing Teumman put Ummanigash and Tammaritu, two sons of Urtaku, on the thrones of two districts of Elam. He then took vengeance on the Aramasans, E. of the Tigris. His brother, Shamash-shum-ukin, now began to plot for independence. He enlisted the Chaldaeans, Aramaeans, and Ummanigash of Elam, Arabia, Ethiopia, and Egypt. A simultaneous rising took place, and Ashurbanipal seemed likely to lose his Empire. He invaded Babylonia. In Elam, Tammaritu put to death IJmmanigash and all his family, but was defeated by Indabigash, and had to flee to Assyria. Ashurbanipal defeated his opponents and laid siege to Babylon, Borsippa, Sippara, and Cutha, capturing one after the other. Shamashshum-ukin burnt his palace over his head, and Babylon surrendered b.c. 648. The conquest of S. Babylonia and Chaldaea was followed by campaigns against Elam, culminating in the capture of Susa and its destruction. Ashurbanipal then punished the Arabians, who, in his enforced absence in Babylonia, had invaded Palestine, overrun Edom and Moab, and threatened Damascus. The inscriptions, however, do not come down below B.C. 646, and the last years of the reign are in obscurity. Ashurbanipal appears to have reigned over Babylon as Kandalanu.

(p) Fall of Nineveh. — Ashurbanipal was succeeded by Ashur-etil-ilani, his son, who was succeeded by Sin-sharishkun, his brother. We do not know how long they reigned, but in b.c. 606 the Medes captured Nineveh and took the N. half of the Empire, while Nabopolassar, king of Babylon (since b.c 626?), took Babylonia.

II. Babylonia.— 1. History.— The history of Baby. Ionia, as monumentally attested, falls naturally into periods: (a) the rise of the city-States and their struggle for supremacy; (6) the supremacy of Babylon and the First Babylonian Empire; (c) the Kassite supremacy and the rise of Assyria; (d) the contemporaneous kingdoms of Assyria and Babylonia ; (c) the supremacy of Assyria to its fall ; (/) the New Babylonian Empire.

(a) The city-Staies. — The prehistoric remains of the earliest settlers in Babylonia are numerous, but they have received no systematic study. The existence of a non-Semitic race, the so-called Sumerians, is at least the most convenient assumption to account for the problems of the earliest history, but it is impossible to decide how early they were intermixed with Semitic folk. It is as yet difficult to decide whether these Semites entered from the S.W., or from the side of Elam, or from N. Mesopotamia. The earliest monuments we possess show a variety of towns, each of which served as a nucleus to a wide area of villages. As populations grew, the needs of pasture for an eminently pastoral people brought about disputes as to boundaries, and wars ensued. The States entered into keen rivalry in other directions, as commerce developed. As early as B.C. 5000 the condition of things may be aptly compared with that of England under the Heptarchy. Eridu, modern Abu Shahrein, lay on the Gulf and W. of the Euphrates mouth. As the seat of the worship of Ea, god of the waters, its business was rather on the sea than on the land, but it was always reverenced as the primitive home of civilization and religion. We have no evidence that it was ever the seat of a kingdom. Some 10 miles to the W. lay Ur, modern Mugheir, then also on the Gulf, the home of the worship of Sin, the moon-god. Across the Euphrates, 30 miles to N.E., lay Larsa, modern Senkereh, where Shamash, the sun-god, was chief god. Twelve miles to the N.W. was Uruk, modern Warka (Erech), with its Ishtar cult. To the N. was Mar, modern Tel Ede. From Mar, 35 miles to the E., on the Shatt-el-Hai canal from the Tigris to the Euphrates, was Shirpurla or Lagash, modern Telloh, with its god Ningirsu. These six cities form the group with whose fortunes most of the Telloh finds are concerned. Nippur, modern Niffer, lay halfway between the Tigris and Euphrates, 60 miles from the Gulf. Its god was the very ancient En-Ul, the old Bel, ‘lord of mankind.’

In the N. more than 50 miles N.W. of Nippur was Cutha, modern Tel Ibrahim, with its god Nergal, lord of the world of the dead. Further N., on the E. bank of the Euphrates, was Sippar, modern Abu Habba, with its sun-god Shamash. Near by must have been Agade. The monuments place here: Kulunu (Calneh); Uhki, later Opis; and Kish. Later, Babylon (wh. see) and its sister city Borsippa came into importance. la Upper Mesopotamia, Haran was probably not much later in its rise as a commercial capital and centre of the moon-god cult.

The history of this period has many gaps, probably because systematic exploration has been carried out only at Telloh and Nippur. The evidence for other cities consists chiefly of references made by the rulers of these two cities, who either ruled over others or were ruled over by them. A king of Ur might leave offerings at Nippur, or order some building to be done there; or the rulers of Nippur might name the king of Ur as their overlord. Out of such scattered references we must weave what history we can. About B.C. 4500 Enshagsagana, king of Kengi in S.W., offered to BSl of Nippur the spoils of Kish. Later, Mesilim, king of Kish, made Shirpurla a subject State. About B.C. 4200 Ur-Nina was able to call himself king of Shirpurla. Eannatum and Entemena of Shirpurla won several victories over other cities and imposed treaties upon them. Soon Lugalzaggisi, king of Uhki, about B.C. 4200, could call himself king of Erech, Ur, and Larsa. Hebrews 9 ruler of ,the First Babylonian Empire, from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. About B.C. 3850, Alusharshid, king of Kish, conquered Elam and Bara’se, to N.E. and E. of Babylonia.

Shargani-shar-all (Sargon i.), king of Agade, B.C. 3800, and his son Naram-Sin, b.c. 3750 according to Nabonidus, were lords of Nippur, Shirpurla, Kish, Babylon, and Erech, and ruled, or at least levied tribute, from the Mediterranean N. into Armenia, over part of Elam, and S. into Arabia and the islands of the Persian Gulf. About B.C. 3500 Ur-Bau of Shirpurla ruled in peace, as a subject prince, or patesi. Gudea, about b.c. 3100, erected wonderful buildings, evidentlyhad great resources, and even conquered Anshan, in Elam, but was not a king. About B.C. 3000, Ur-GQr and his son Dungi, kings of Ur, built temples not only in Ur but in Kutha, Shirpurla, Nippur, and Erech. A dynasty of Erech and a dynasty of Isin later claimed authority over Nippur, Ur, Eridu, and other less noted cities. The next dynasty of Ur, founded by Gungunu, included Ine-Sin, Bur-Sin ii., Gamil-Sin, Dungi ii. and others, b.c. 2800-2500. They warred in Syria, Arabia, and Elam.

(6) Supremacy of Babylon. — The First Dynasty of Babylon (b.c. 2396) was founded by Sumu-abi. But Larsa was under its own king Nur-Adad, who was followed by his son Sin-iddinam. The Eiamites invaded the land, and under Kudur-nanhundi carried off the goddess Nans from Erech about b.c. 2290. Larsa became the seat of an Elamite king, Rim-Sin, son of Kudurmabuk, ruler of lamutbal in W. Elam. He ruled over Ur, Eridu, Nippur, Shirpurla, and Erech, and conquered Isin. He is thought by some to be Arioch of EUasar who with Chedorlaomer of Elam, Amraphel of Shinar, (Hammurabi?), Tidal of Goiim overthrew the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 14). At any rate he was expelled from Larsa by Hammurabi in the 31st year of his reign. Hammurabi ruled all Mesopotamia, from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf. His reign was the climax of Babylonian civilization and culture. His successors maintained his Empire for a while, but then Babylonia had to submit to foreign conquest. His period is known to us by an enormous number of inscriptions and monuments, and deserves attention as characteristic of Old Babylonia at its best.

The second dynasty has left remarkably few monuments in the districts hitherto explored, and beyond its existence we know little of it.

(c, d, e) Kassite supremacy, and rise of Assyria, etc. — The third dynasty rose on the conquest of Babylonia by the Kassites, a mountaineer people from the N.E., of non-Semitic race, thought by many to be Cush in Genesis 10:8. The Kassites attempted an invasion as early as the 9th year of Samsu-iluna, but were driven back. They first established themselves in the South, giving the name of Karduniash to it. They adopted the royal titles, worshipped the ancient gods, and wrote in the Babylonian language. The first king of whom we have important inscriptions was Agum-kakrime (Agum ii.). He claims to rule over the Kashshu, the Akkadians, Babylonia, Ashnunak, Padan, Alman, and Gutium. He restored the images of Marduk and Zarpanit his consort, which had been carried away to Hani in N. Mesopotamia. Later we learn from the Tell el-Amarna letters that as early as the time of Araenophis in., king of Egypt, Kurigalzu of Babylon was in friendly relations with Egypt, and refused to support a Canaanite conspiracy against its rule. The relations with Assyria have been already dealt with. Kadashman-harbe co-operated with his grandfather in driving out the SQti, who robbed the caravans from the West and Egypt. Kurigalzu ii. waged successful war with Elam, captured the king Hurbatila with his own hands, and sacked Susa. With Melishihu and Marduk-apliddina i. Babylonian power revived, but fell again under their successors. The Kassites first gave Babylonia a national name and exalted the worship of BSl of Nippur. In their time. Babylonia had trade relations not only with Mesopotamia Syria, and Egypt, but with Bactria, and possibly China on the E., and with Euboea on the West.

(f) New Babylonian Empire. — The new Babylonian dynasty was that of Pashe, or Isin, a native dynasty. Nebuchadrezzar i. was apparently its founder. He defeated the Elamites and wrested from them the provinces already occupied by them, and brought back the statue of BSl which they had captured. He also reconquered the West, and left his name on the rocks of the Nahr el-Kelb. His attempts upon Assyria were unsuccessful. Henceforth Babylonia was pent up by Assyria and Elam, and merely held its own. The fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth dynasties yield but a few names, of whose exploits we know next to nothing. The Aramsean migration swallowed up Mesopotamia and drove back both Assyria and Babylonia. The Chaldseans followed the old route from Arabia by Ur, and established themselves firmly in the S. of Babylonia. Akkad was plundered by the Suti. Thus cut off from the West, the absence of Babylonian power allowed the rise of Fhilistia; Israel consolidated, Phoenicia grew into power. Hamath, Aleppo, Patin, Samal became independent States. Damascus became an Aramaean power. Egypt also was split up, and could infiuence Palestine but little. When Assyria revived under Adad-nirari, the whole W. was a new country and had to be reconquered. Babylonia had no hand in it. She was occupied in suppressing the Chaidseans and Aramsans on her borders; and had to call for Assyrian assistance in the time of Shalmaneser. Finally, Tiglath-pileser iii. became master of Babylonia, and after him it fell into the hands of the Chaidaean Merodach-baladan, till Sargon drove him out. Under Sennacherib it was a mere dependency of Assyria, till he destroyed Babylon. Under Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal Babylonia revived somewhat, and under Nabopolassar found in the weakness of Assyria and the fall of Nineveh a chance to recover.

Nabopolassar reckoned his reign from B.C. 625, but during the early years of his rule some Southern Babylonian cities such as Erech continued to acknowledge Sin-shar-ishkun. According to classical writers, he allied himself with the Medo-Scythian hordes, who devastated Mesopotamia and captured Nineveh. He claims to have chased from Akkad the Assyrians, who from the days of old rilled over all peoples and with their heavy yoke wore out the nations, and to have broken their yoke. The Medes seem to have made no attempt to hold Mesopotamia, and Pharaoh Necho, who was advancing from Egypt to take Syria, was defeated at Carchemish B.C. 605 by Nebuchadrezzar. So Babylonia succeeded to the W. part of the Assyrian Empire. Beyond a few building inscriptions we know little of this reign.

Nebuchadrezzar’s inscriptions hardly mention anything but his buildings. He fortified Babylon, enriched it with temples and palaces; restored temples at Sippara, Larsa, Ur, Dilbat, Baz, Erech, Borsa, Kutha, Marad; cleaned out and walled with quays the Arahtu canal which ran through Babylon, and dug acanal N. of Sippara. He left an inscription on the rocks at Wady Brissa, a valley N. of the Lebanon Mountains and W. of the upper part of the Orontes; another on a rock N. of the Nahr el- Kelb, where the old road from Arvad passes S. to the cities of the coast. A fragment of his annals states that in his 37th year he fought in Egypt against Amasis.

Amel-Marduk (Evil-Merodach), his son, was not acceptable to the priests, and was murdered by his brother-in-law Neriglissar, who had married a daughter of Nebuchadrezzar, and was son of BSl-shum-ishkun, the rubu-imga. He, too, was occupied chiefly with the temples of his land. Neriglissar was succeeded by his son Labashi-Marduk, a ‘bad character,’ whom the priests deposed, setting up Nabonidus, a Babylonian. He was an antiquary rather than a king. He rebuilt many of the oldest Babylonian temples, and in exploring their ruins found records which have helped to date early kings, as quoted above. For some reason he avoided

69 Babylon and left the command of the army to his son Belshazzar. The Manda king, Astyages, invaded Mesopotamia, and was repelled only by the aid of Cyrus, king of Anshan, who a little later by his overthrow of Astyages became king of Persia, and then conquered Croesus of Lydia. On the 16th of Tammuz B.C. 539 Cyrus entered Babylon without resistance. Nabonidus was spared and sent to Karmania. Belshazzar was killed. Cyrus was acceptable to the Babylonians, worshipped at the ancient shrines, glorified the gods who had given him leadership over their land and people, made Babylon a royal city, and took the old native titles, but the sceptre had departed from the Semitic world for ever.

2 . Literature .^Babyloniawas very early in possession of a form of writing. The earliest specimens of which we know are little removed from pictorial writing; but the use of fiat pieces of soft clay, afterwards dried in the sun or baked hard in a furnace, as writing material, and strokes of a triangular reed, soon led to conventional forms of characters in which the curved lines of a picture were replaced by one or more short marks on the line. These were gradually reduced in number until the resultant group of strokes bore little resemblance to the original. The short pointed wedge-shaped ‘dabs’ of the reed have given rise to the name ‘cuneiform.’ The necessities of the engraver on stone led him to reproduce these wedges with an emphasized head that gives the appearance of nails, but all such graphic varieties make no essential difference. The signs denoted primarily ideas: thus the picture of a bull, or a bull’s head, would symbolize ‘power,’ and all the words derived from the root ‘to be powerful,’ then from the word ‘powerful’ a syllabic value would be derived which might be used in spelling words. Thus the picture of a star might signify ‘heaven,’ the supreme god Anu, the idea ‘above,’ and be used to denote all things ‘high, lofty, or divine’ ; its syllabic value being an it would be used in spelling wherever an had to be written. But, again, as ‘god’ was ilu, it might be used in spelling for il. Thus many signs have more than one value, even as syllables; they may also denote ideas. The scribes, however, used not far short of 500 signs, and there is rarely any doubt of their meaning. The values attached to the signs in many cases are not derivable from the words which denote their ideas, and it has been concluded that the signs were adopted from a non-Semitic people called the Suznerians. Many Inscriptions cannot be read as Semitic, except by regarding them as a sort of halfway development of pictorial writing, and when read syllabically are supposed to be in the Sumerian language, which continued to be used, at any rate in certain phrases, to the last, much as Latin words and abbreviations (like £. s. d.) are used by us. There is still great obscurity about this subject, which can be solved only by the discovery of earlier or intermediate inscriptions.

At any rate, we are now able to read with certainty, except for a few obscure expressions, inscriptions which possibly date back to b.c. 6000. The earliest inscriptions hitherto recovered have been from temple archives, and naturally relate to offerings to the gods or gifts to the temples. From very early times, however, contracts such as deeds of sale, dispositions of property, marriage settlements, etc., were preserved in the archives, and many families preserved large quantities of deeds, letters, business accounts, etc. Writing and reading were very widely diffused, even women being well educated in these respects, and we have enormous collections in our museums of material relating to the private life and customs of the people at almost all periods of the history.

The Babylonians early drew up codes of laws, hymns, ritual texts, mythology, and made records of observations in all directions of natural history. The supposed infiuence of the heavenly bodies led to works associating celestial phenomena with terrestrial events — the so-called astrological texts which recorded astronomical observations from very early dates. A wonderful collection of extraordinary events, as births of monsters or abnormal beings, were regarded as ominous, and an attempt was made to connect them with events in national or private history. These ‘omen tablets’ also deal with morals, attaching to human acts consequences evincing royal or Divine displeasure. Evil conduct was thus placed under a ban, and the punishment of it was assigned to the ‘hand of God or the king.’ It was a very high morality that was so inculcated: to say yea with the lips and nay in the heart, to use false weights, to betray a friend, to estrange relations, to slander or backbite, are all forbidden. The conduct of a good king, of a good man, of a faithful son of his god, are set out with great care, and culminate in the precept, ‘To him that does thee wrong return a gracious courtesy.’ Medicine was extensively written upon, and the number of cases prescribed for is very great. We are not able, as a rule, to recognize either the ailment or the prescription; but it seems that magical spells were often used to drive out the demon supposed to be the cause of the disease.

The Babylonians had some acquaintance with mathematics, so far as necessary for the calculation of areas, and they early drew up tables of squares and cubes, as well as of their measures of surface and capacity. To them we owe the division of time into hours, minutes, and seconds. Their measures still lack the fundamental explanation which can be afforded only by finding some measured object with its Babylonian measure inscribed upon it, in a state allowing of accurate modern measures. See Weights and Measures.

3. Religion. — The religion of Babylonia was a syncretic result of the union of a number of city and local cults. Consequently Shamash the sun-god; Sin the moon-god; Ishtar, Venus; Marduk the god of Babylon, Nabfl of Borsippa, Bel of Nippur, Nergal the god of pestilence, Nusku the new-moon crescent, and a host of others, were worshipped with equal reverence by both kings and people. Most men, however, were specially devoted to one god, determined for them by hereditary cult, or possibly personal choice: a man was ‘son of his god’ and the god was his ‘father.’ In the course of time almost every god absorbed much of the attributes of every other god, so that, with the exception of such epithets as were peculiarly appropriate to him, Shamash could be addressed or hymned in much the same words as Marduk or Sin. By some teachers all the gods were said to be Marduk in one or other manifestation of his Divine activity. The whole pantheon became organized and simplified by the identification of deities originally distinct, as a result of political unification or theological system. The ideal of Divinity was high and pure, often very poetic and beautiful, but the Babylonian was tolerant of other gods, and indisposed to deny the right of others to call a god by another name than that which best summed up for him his own conception.

Magic entered largely into the beliefs and practices of life, invading religion in spite of spiritual authority. The universe was peopled with spirits, good and bad, who had to be appeased or propitiated. Conjurations, magic spells, forecasts, omens were resorted to in order to bind or check the malign influences of demons. The augurs, conjurers, magicians, soothsayers were a numerous class, and, though frowned upon by the priests and physicians, were usually called in whenever disease or fear suggested occult influence. The priest was devoted to the service of his god, and originally every head of a family was priest of the local god, the right to minister in the temple descending in certain families to the latest times. The office was later much subdivided, and as the temple became an overwhelming factor in the city life, its officials and employees formed a large part of the population. A temple corresponded to a monastery in the Middle Ages, having lands, houses, tenants, and a host of dependants, as well as enormous wealth, which it employed on the whole in good deeds, and certainly threw its influence on the side of peace and security. Although distinct classes, the judges, scribes, physicians, and even skilled manufacturers were usually attached to the temple, and priests often exercised these functions. Originally the god, and soon his temple, were the visible embodiment of the city life. The king grew out of the high priest. He was the vicegerent of the god on earth, and retained his priestly power to the last, but he especially represented its external aspect. He was ruler, leader of the army, chief judge, supreme builder of palaces and temples, guardian of right, defender of the weak and oppressed, accessible to the meanest subject. The expansion of city territory by force of arms, the growth of kingdoms and rise of empires, led to a military caste, rapacious lor foreign spoils, and domestic politics became a struggle for power between the war party of expansion and conquest and the party of peace and consolidation.

The Babylonian Literature was extensive, and much of it has striking similarities to portions of the Bible (see Creation, Deluge, etc.). It also seems to have had influence upon classical mythology.

N.B. — See Appendix note at end of volume.

C. H. W. Johns.

Astad, Astath

1322 or 3622 of Astad’s descendants are mentioned as returning with Zerubbabel (1 Es 5’^). He is called Azgad in the can. books; and 1222 descendants are mentioned in the parallel list in Ezra 2:12. 2322 in Nehemiah 7:17. Hebrews 99 as Astath, 1 Esdras 8:38. when a second detachment of 111 return under Ezra ( = Ezr 8:12). Azgad appears among the leaders who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah (Nehemiah 10:15).

Astrology, Astronomy

See Magic, etc.

Astyages

Astyages (Bel >) was the last king of Media. He was defeated and dethroned by Cyrus the Great in B.C. 550. J. F. MCCURDY.

Asuppim

1 Chronicles 26 AV; RV correctly ‘storehouse.’

Asur

Asur (AV Assur). 1 Esdras 5:31. His sons returned among the Temple servants under Zerubbabel; called Haihur, Ezra 2:51. Nehemiah 7:53.

Asylum

See Altar, Kin [Next of]. Refuge [Cities of].

Asyncritus

Asyncritus (Romans 16:14). A Christian greeted by St. Paul with four others ‘and the brethren that are with them,’ perhaps members of the same small community. The name occurs in Rom. Ins. CIL vi. 12,565, of a freedman of Augustus.

Atad

Atad (Genesis 60). A threshing-floor on the road to Hebron. The site is unknown.

Atar

Atar (AV Jatal). 1 Esdras 5:28. His sons were among the porters or door-keepers who returned with Zerubbabel; called Ater, Ezra 2:42. Nehemiah 7:45.

Atarah

Wife of Jerahmeel and mother of Onam (1 Chronicles 2:26).

Atargatis

(RV less correctly Atergatis). In addition to the sanctuary of this goddess ( = Gr. Derceto) at Camion (2 Maccabees 12:26), other shrines were situated at Hierapolis and Ashkelon. Here sacred fish were kept, and at the latter place the goddess was represented as a mermaid, resembling the supposed form of the Philistine Dagon (wh. see). Some expositors, because of the ancient name of Carnion, i.e. Ashteroth-karnaim, have identified the goddess with Astarte. The name, however, a compound of ‘Athar ( = PhcBn. ‘Astart, Heb.’ Ashtoreth [wh. see]) and of ‘Atti or ‘Allah, which latter term appears as a god’s name upon inscriptions, shows her to be Astarte who has assimilated the functions of’ Atti. This etymology, together with her mermaidform and the fact that flsh were sacred to her, apparently makes her a personification of the fertilizing powers of water. N. Koenig.

Ataroth

1. A town not far from Uibon (Nu 323. 88)_ probably the modern Khirbet ‘AimrUs, to the N.W. of Diman. 2. A town on the S. border of the territory of the children of Joseph (Joshua 16:2). called Ataroth-addar in v. 5, probably identical with ed-Darlyeh, U mile S.W. of Bethhoron the Lower. 3. A town not identified, towards the E. end of the same border (Joshua 16:7). 4. The name of a family (1 Ch. 2. RV Atroth-beth-Joab). w. Ewinq.

Ater

1. The ancestor of certain Temple porters who returned with Zerubbabel, Ezra 2:16, 42. Nehemiah 7:21, 45; of. Atar. 2. (AV Aterezias), 1 Esdras 5:15) cf. Ezra 2:16. His sons returned with Zerubbabel.

Ateta

Ateta (AV Teta), 1 Esdras 5:28, 2:42, Nehemiah 7:45.

ATHACH, 1 Samuel 30:30. Unknown town in the south of Judah.

Athaiah

A man of Judah dwelling In Jerusalem (Nehemiah 11:4).

Athaliah

1. The only queen who occupied the throne of Judah. She was the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, and was married to Jehoram, son of Jehoshaphat. On the accession of her son Ahaziah she became queen-mother, second only to the king in power and influence. When Ahaziah was slain by Jehu, she could not bring herself to take an inferior position, and seized the throne for herself, making it secure, as she supposed, by slaying all the male members of the house of David so far as they were within her reach. One infant was preserved, and was successfully concealed in the Temple six years. The persons active in this were Jehosheba, sister of Ahaziah, and her husband Jehoiada, the chief priest. The story of the young prince’s coronation by the bodyguard is one of the most dramatic in Hebrew history. The death of Atbaliah at the hands of the guard forms the logical conclusion of the incident. The destruction of the temple of Baal, which is spoken of in the same connexion, indicates that Athaliah was addicted to the worship of the Phoenloian Baal, introduced by her mother into Israel (2 Kings 11). 2. See Gotholias. 3. A Benjamite (1 Chronicles 8:26). H. P. Smith.

Atharim

(Numbers 21:1). Either a proper name of a place from which the route was named ; so RV ‘the way of Atharim,’ as LXX, — or, ‘the way of tracks,’ i.e. a regular caravan road. (The rendering of AV, ‘way of the spies ,’ follows Targ. and Syr.) The’ way of Atharim’ will then be that described in Nu. IS^‘-^s.

Athenob

Athenob nTS (1 Maccabees 16:28–36). A friend of Antiochus VII. Sidetes. He was sent to Jerusalem toremonstrate with Simon Maccabieus for the occupation of Joppa, Gazara, the citadel of Jerusalem, and certain places outside Judeea. Simon refused the terms proposed, and Athenobius was obliged to return in indignation to the king.