Offence; Offend – Olive Berries

Offence; Offend

o-fens', o-fend' (mikhshol, 'asham, chaTa'; skandalon, skandalizo): "Offend" is either transitive or intransitive As transitive it is primarily "to strike against," hence, "to displease" "to make angry," "to do harm to," "to affront," in Scripture, "to cause to sin"; intransitive it is "to sin," "to cause anger," in Scripture, "to be caused to sin." "Offence" is either the cause of anger, displeasure, etc., or a sin. In Scripture we have the special significance of a stumbling-block, or cause of falling, sin, etc.

1. Old Testament Usage:

In the Old Testament it is frequently the translation of 'asham, "to be guilty," "to transgress": Jeremiah 2:3, the Revised Version (British and American) "shall be held guilty"; 50:7, the Revised Version (British and American) "not guilty"; Ezekiel 25:12, "hath greatly offended"; Hosea 4:15, the Revised Version margin "become guilty"; 5:15, "till they acknowledge their offense," the Revised Version margin "have borne their guilt"; 13:1, "He offended in Baal," the Revised Version margin "became guilty"; Habakkuk 1:11, "He shall pass over, and offend, (imputing) this his power unto his god," the Revised Version (British and American) "Then shall he sweep by (as) a wind, and shall pass over (margin "transgress"), and be guilty, (even) he whose might is his god."

In 2 Chronicles 28:13, we have 'ashmath `al, literally, "the offense against," the Revised Version (British and American) "a trespass (margin "or guilt") against Yahweh"; we have also chaTa', "to miss the mark," "to sin," "to err" (Genesis 20:9, the Revised Version (British and American) "sinned against thee"; 40:1, "offended their lord"; 2 Kings 18:14; Jeremiah 37:18, the Revised Version (British and American) "sinned against thee"); baghadh, "to deal treacherously" (Psalms 73:15, "offend against the generation of thy children," the Revised Version (British and American) "dealt treacherously with"); chabhal, "to act wickedly" (Job 34:31); mikhshol, "a stumbling block" (Leviticus 19:14; translated in Isa 8:14, "a rock of offense"; compare Eze 14:3; 1Sa 25:31; Ps 119:165, "nothing shall offend," the Revised Version (British and American) "no occasion of stumbling"; compare Isaiah 57:14; Jeremiah 6:21, etc.); pasha`, "to be fractious," "to transgress" (Proverbs 18:19, "a brother offended," the Revised Version margin "injured"). "Offence" is mikhshol (see above, 1 Samuel 25:31; Isaiah 8:14); cheT', "sin," etc. (Ecclesiastes 10:4, "Yielding pacifleth great offenses," the American Standard Revised Version "Gentleness (the English Revised Version "yielding") allayeth," the American Revised Version margin "Calmness (the English Revised Version "gentleness") leaveth great sins undone"). "Offender" is chaTTa' (1 Kings 1:21, margin "Hebrew: sinners"; Isa 29:21, "that make a man an offender for a word," the American Standard Revised Version "that make a man an offender in his cause," margin "make men to offend by (their) words," or, "for a word," the English Revised Version "in a cause," margin "make men to offend by (their) words").

2. New Testament Usage:

The New Testament usage of these words deserves special attention. The word most frequently translated "offend" in the King James Version is skandalizo (skandalon, "offence"), very frequent in the Gospels (Matthew 5:29, "if thy right eye offend thee"; 5:30; 11:6; 18:6, "whoso shall offend one of these little ones"; 13:41, "all things that offend"; Lu 17:1, "It is impossible but that offenses will come," etc.; Ro 14:21; 16:17, "Mark them which cause .... offenses"; 1Co 8:13 twice, "if meat make my brother to offend," etc.). Skandalon is primarily "a trap-stick," "a bentstick on which the bait is fastened which the animal strikes against and so springs the trap," hence, it came to denote a "snare," or anything which one strikes against injuriously (it is Septuagint's word for moqesh, a "noose" or "snare," Joshua 23:13; 1 Samuel 18:21); "a stumbling-block" Septuagint for mikhshol (see above), Leviticus 19:14). For skandalizo, skandalon, translated in the King James Version, "offend," "offence," the Revised Version (British and American) gives "cause to stumble," "stumbling-block," etc.; thus, Matthew 5:29, "if thy right eye causeth thee to stumble," i.e. "is an occasion for thy falling into sin"; Matthew 16:23, "Thou art a stumbling-block unto me," an occasion of turning aside from the right path; in Matthew 26:31,Matthew 26:33 twice, "offended" is retained, margin, 26:33 twice, "Greek: caused to stumble" (same word in 26:31); Mark 9:42, "whosoever shall cause one of these little ones that believe on me to stumble," to fall away from the faith, or fall into sin; Luke 17:1, "It is impossible but that occasions of stumbling should come; but woe unto him, through whom they come"; in Romans 14:21; Romans 16:17; in 1 Corinthians 8:1–13, Paul's language has the same meaning, and we see how truly he had laid to heart the Saviour's earnest admonitions--"weak brethren" with him answering to the master's "little ones who believe"; Romans 14:21, "It is good not to eat flesh, nor to drink wine, nor to do anything whereby thy brother stumbleth," i.e. "is led by your example to do that which he cannot do with a good conscience"; 14:20, "It is evil for that man who eateth with offense (dia proskommatos)," so as to place a stumbling-block before his brother, or, rather, `without the confidence that he is doing right'; compare 14:23, "He that doubteth is condemned if he eat, because he eateth not of faith; and whatsoever is not of faith is sin"; so 1 Corinthians 8:13; Romans 16:17, "Mark them that are causing the divisions and occasions of stumbling, contrary to the doctrine, (margin "teaching") which ye learned" (Is not the "teaching" of Christ Himself implied here?). Everything that would embolden another to do that which would be wrong for him, or that would turn anyone away from the faith, must be carefully avoided, seeking to please, not ourselves, but to care for our brother, "for whom Christ died," "giving no occasion of stumbling (proskope) in anything" (2 Corinthians 6:3).

Aproskopos, "not causing to stumble," is translated "void of offense" (Acts 24:16, "a conscience void of offense"; 1Co 10:32, the Revised Version (British and American) "occasion of stumbling"; Philippians 1:10, "void of offense"); hamartano, "to miss the mark," "to sin," "to err," is translated "offended" (Acts 25:8, the Revised Version (British and American) "sinned"); hamartia, "sin," "error" (2 Corinthians 11:7, the Revised Version (British and American) "Did I commit a sin?"); ptaio, "to stumble," "fall" (James 2:10; James 3:2 twice, "offend," the Revised Version (British and American) "stumble," "stumbleth"); paraptoma, "a falling aside or away," is translated "offence" (Romans 4:25; Romans 5:15,Romans 5:16,Romans 5:17,Romans 5:18,Romans 5:20, in each case the Revised Version (British and American) "trespass"); adikeo, "to be unrighteous" (Acts 25:11, the Revised Version (British and American) "wrongdoer," the King James Version "offender").

In the Apocrypha we have "offence" (skandalon, Judith 12:2), the Revised Version (British and American) "I will not eat thereof, lest there be an occasion of stumbling"; "offend" (hamartano, Ecclesiasticus 7:7), the Revised Version (British and American) "sin"; "greatly offended" (prosochthizo, Ecclesiasticus 25:2); "offended" (skandalizo, Ecclesiasticus 32:15), the Revised Version (British and American) "stumble."

W. L Walker

Offer; Offering

of'-er, of'-er-ing.

See SACRIFICE.

Office

of'-is: In the Old Testament the word is often used in periphrastic renderings, e.g. "minister .... in the priest's office," literally, act as priest (Exodus 28:1, etc.); "do the office of a midwife," literally, cause or help to give birth (Exodus 1:16). But the word is also used as a rendering of different Hebrew words, e.g. ken, "pedestal," "place" (Genesis 40:13, the King James Version "place"; Genesis 41:13); `abhodhah, "labor," "work" (1 Chronicles 6:32); pequddah, "oversight," "charge" (Psalms 109:8); ma`amadh, literally, "standing," e.g. waiting at table (1 Chronicles 23:28); mishmar, "charge," observance or service of the temple (Nehemiah 13:14 the King James Version).

Similarly in the New Testament the word is used in periphrastic renderings, e.g. priest's office (Luke 1:8,Luke 1:9); office of a deacon (diakonia, 1 Timothy 3:10); office of a bishop (episkope, 1 Timothy 3:1). the Revised Version (British and American) uses other renderings, e.g. "ministry" (Romans 11:13); "serve as deacons" (1 Timothy 3:10). In Acts 1:20, the Revised Version (British and American) has "office" (margin "overseership") for the King James Version "bishoprick."

T. Lewis

Officer

of'-i-ser: In the King James Version the term is employed to render different words denoting various officials, domestic, civil and military, such as caric, "eunuch," "minister of state" (Genesis 37:36); paqidh, "person in charge," "overseer" (Genesis 41:34); necibh, "stationed," "garrison," "prefect" (1 Kings 4:19); shoTer, "scribe" or "secretary" (perhaps arranger or organizer), then any official or overseer. In Esther 9:3 for the King James Version "officers of the king" the Revised Version (British and American) has (more literal) "they that did the king's business."

In the New Testament, "officer" generally corresponds to the Greek word huperetes, "servant," or any person in the employ of another. In Matthew 5:25 the term evidently means "bailiff" or exactor of the fine imposed by the magistrate, and corresponds to praktor, used in Luke 12:58.

T. Lewis

Offices Of Christ

See CHRIST, OFFICES OF.

Offscouring

of'-skour-ing: This strong and expressive word occurs only once in the Old Testament and once in the New Testament. The weeping prophet uses it as he looks upon his erstwhile fair and holy city, despoiled, defiled, derided by the profane, the enemies of God and of His people (Lamentations 3:45, cechi). The favored people, whose city lies in heaps and is patrolled by the heathen, are hailed and held up as the scrapings, the offscouring, the offal of the earth. They are humbled to earth, crushed into the dust, carried away to be the slaves of licentious idolaters. The haughty, cruel, cutting boastfulness of the victors covered Israel with contumely.

In 1 Corinthians 4:13 the greatest of the apostles reminds the prosperous and self-satisfied Corinthinns that they, the apostles, were "made as the filth of the world, the offscouring of all things." In such contempt were they held by the unbelieving world and by false apostles. The strange, strong word (peripsema) should remind us what it cost in former times to be a true servant of Christ.

G.H. Gerberding

Offspring

of'-spring.

See CHILDREN.

Often

of'-n (puknos, "thick," "close"): An archaic usage for "frequent": "Thine often infirmities" (1 Timothy 5:23); compare "by often rumination" (Shakespeare, As You Like It, IV, i, 18); "The often round" (Ben Jonson, The Forest, III); "Of wrench'd or broken limb--an often chance" (Tennyson, Gareth and Lynette).

Og

(`ogh; Og): King of Bashan, whose territory, embracing 60 cities, was conquered by Moses and the Israelites immediately after the conquest of Sihon, king of the Amorites (Numbers 21:33–35; Deuteronomy 3:1–12). The defeat took place at Edrei, one of the chief of these cities (Numbers 21:33; Joshua 12:4), and Og and his people were "utterly destroyed" (Deuteronomy 3:6). Og is described as the last of the REPHAIM (which see), or giant-race of that district, and his giant stature is borne out by what is told in Deuteronomy 3:11 of the dimensions of his "bedstead of iron" (`eres barzel), 9 cubits long and 4 broad (13 1/2 ft. by 6 ft.), said to be still preserved at Rabbath of Ammon when the verse describing it was written. It is not, of course, necessary to conclude that Og's own height, though immense, was as great as this. Some, however, prefer to suppose that what is intended is "a sarcophagus of black basalt," which iron-like substance abounds in the Hauran. The conquered territory was subsequently bestowed on the Reubenites, Gadites, and the half-tribe of Manasseh (Numbers 32:33; Deuteronomy 3:12,Deuteronomy 3:13). Other references to Og are Deuteronomy 1:4; Deuteronomy 4:47; Deuteronomy 31:4; Joshua 2:10; Joshua 9:10; Joshua 13:12,Joshua 13:30). The memory of this great conquest lingered all through the national history (Psalms 135:11; Psalms 136:20). On the conquest, compare Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, I, 185-87.

See ARGOB; BASHAN.

James Orr

Ohad

o'-had ('ohadh, meaning unknown): A son of Simeon, mentioned as third in order (Genesis 46:10; Exodus 6:15). The name is not found in the list of Numbers 26:12–14.

Ohel

o'-hel ('ohel, "tent"): A son of Zerubbabel (1 Chronicles 3:20).

Oholah

o-ho'-la ('oholah; the King James Version Aholah): The exact meaning is a matter of dispute. As written, it seems to mean a tent-woman, or the woman living in a tent. With a mappik in the last consonant it could mean "her tent." The term is used symbolically by Ezekiel to designate Samaria or the kingdom of Israel (Ezekiel 23:4,Ezekiel 23:5,Ezekiel 23:36,Ezekiel 23:44).

See OHOLIBAH.

Oholiab

o-ho'-li-ab ('oholi'abh, "father's tent"; the King James Version Aholiab): A Danite artificer, who assisted Bezalel in the construction of the tabernacle and its furniture (Exodus 31:6; Exodus 35:34; Exodus 36:1 Exodus 38:23).

Oholibah

W. W. Davies

Oholibamah

o-hol-i-ba'-ma, o-hol-i-ba'-ma ('oholibhamah, "tent of the high place"):

(1) One of Esau's wives, and a daughter of Anah the Hivite (Genesis 36:2,Genesis 36:5). It is strange that she is not named along with Esau's other wives in either Genesis 28:9 or 26:30. Various explanations have been given, but none of them is satisfactory. There is probably some error in the text.

(2) An Edomite chief (Genesis 36:41; 1 Chronicles 1:52).

Oil

oil (shemen; elaion):

1. Terms

2. Production and Storage

3. Uses

(1) As a Commodity of Exchange

(2) As a Cosmetic

(3) As a Medicine

(4) As a Food

(5) As an Illuminant

(6) In Religious Rites

(a) Consecration

(b) Offerings

(c) Burials

4. Figurative Uses

Shemen, literally, "fat," corresponds to the common Arabic senin of similar meaning, although now applied to boiled butter fat.

1. Terms:

Another Hebrew word, zayith (zeth), "olive," occurs with shemen in several passages (Exodus 27:20; Exodus 30:24; Leviticus 24:2). The corresponding Arabic zeit, a contraction of zeitun, which is the name for the olive tree as well as the fruit, is now applied to oils in general, to distinguish them from solid fats. Zeit usually means olive oil, unless some qualifying name indicates another oil. A corresponding use was made of shemen, and the oil referred to so many times in the Bible was olive oil (except Esther 2:12). Compare this with the Greek elaion, "oil," a neuter noun from elaia, "olive," the origin of the English word "oil." yitshar, literally, "glistening," which occurs less frequently, is used possibly because of the light-giving quality of olive oil, or it may have been used to indicate fresh oil, as the clean, newly pressed oil is bright. meshach, a Chaldaic word, occurs twice: Ezra 6:9; Ezra 7:22. elaion, is the New Testament term.

2. Production and Storage:

Olive oil has been obtained, from the earliest times, by pressing the fruit in such a way as to filter out the oil and other liquids from the residue. The Scriptural references correspond so nearly to the methods practiced in Syria up to the present time, and the presses uncovered by excavators at such sites as Gezer substantiate so well the similarity of these methods, that a description of the oil presses and modes of expression still being employed in Syria will be equally true of those in use in early Israelite times.

The olives to yield the greatest amount of oil are allowed to ripen, although some oil is expressed from the green fruit. As the olive ripens it turns black. The fruit begins to fall from the trees in September, but the main crop is gathered after the first rains in November. The olives which have not fallen naturally or have not been blown off by the storms are beaten from the trees with long poles (compare Deuteronomy 24:20). The fruit is gathered from the ground into baskets and carried on the heads of the women, or on donkeys to the houses or oil presses. Those carried to the houses are preserved for eating. Those carried to the presses are piled in heaps until fermentation begins. This breaks down the oil cells and causes a more abundant flow of oil. The fruit thus softened may be trod out with the feet (Micah 6:15)--which is now seldom practiced--or crushed in a handmill. Such a mill was uncovered at Gezer beside an oil press. Stone mortars with wooden pestles are also used. Any of these methods crushes the fruit, leaving only the stone unbroken, and yields a purer oil (Exodus 27:20). The method now generally practiced of crushing the fruit and kernels with an edgerunner mill probably dates from Roman times. These mills are of crude construction. The stones are cut from native limestone and are turned by horses or mules. Remains of huge stones of this type are found near the old Roman presses in Mt. Lebanon and other districts.

The second step in the preparation of the oil is the expression. In districts where the olives are plentiful and there is no commercial demand for the oil, the householders crush the fruit in a mortar, mix the crushed mass with water, and after the solid portions have had time to settle, the pure sweet oil is skimmed from the surface of the water. This method gives a delicious oil, but is wasteful. This is no doubt the beaten oil referred to in connection with religious ceremonials (Exodus 27:20). Usually the crushed fruit is spread in portions on mats of reeds or goats' hair, the corners of which are folded over the mass, and the packets thus formed are piled one upon another between upright supports. These supports were formerly two stone columns or the two sections of a split stone cylinder hollowed out within to receive the mats. Large hollow tree trunks are still similarly used in Syria. A flat stone is next placed on top, and then a heavy log is placed on the pile in such a manner that one end can be fitted into a socket made in a wall or rock in close proximity to the pile. This socket becomes the fulcrum of a large lever of the second class. The lever is worked in the same manner as that used in the wine presses (see WINE PRESS). These presses are now being almost wholly superseded by hydraulic presses. The juice which runs from the press, consisting of oil, extractive matter and water, is conducted to vats or run into jars and allowed to stand until the oil separates. The oil is then drawn off from the surface, or the watery fluid and sediment is drawn away through a hole near the bottom of the jar, leaving the oil in the container. (For the construction of the ancient oil presses, see The Excavations of Gezer, by Macalister.) The oil, after standing for some time to allow further sediment to settle, is stored either in huge earthenware jars holding 100 to 200 gallons, or in underground cisterns (compare 1 Chronicles 27:28) holding a much larger quantity. Some of these cisterns in Beirut hold several tons of oil each (2 Chronicles 11:11; 2 Chronicles 32:28; Nehemiah 13:5,Nehemiah 13:12; Proverbs 21:20). In the homes the oil is kept in small earthen jars of various shapes, usually having spouts by which the oil can be easily poured (1 Kings 17:12; 2 Kings 4:2). In 1 Samuel 16:13; 1 Kings 1:39, horns of oil are mentioned.

3. Uses:

(1) As a Commodity of Exchange.

Olive oil when properly made and stored will keep sweet for years, hence, was a good form of merchandise to hold. Oil is still sometimes given in payment (1 Kings 5:11; Ezekiel 27:17; Hosea 12:1; Luke 16:6; Revelation 18:13).

(2) As a Cosmetic.

From earliest times oil was used as a cosmetic, especially for oiling the limbs and head. Oil used in this way was usually scented (see OINTMENT). Oil is still used in this manner by the Arabs, principally to keep the skin and scalp soft when traveling in dry desert regions where there is no opportunity to bathe. Sesame oil has replaced olive oil to some extent for this purpose. Homer, Pliny and other early writers mention its use for external application. Pliny claimed it was used to protect the body against the cold. Many Biblical references indicate the use of oil as a cosmetic (Exodus 25:6; Deuteronomy 28:40; Ruth 3:3; 2 Samuel 12:20; 2 Samuel 14:2; Esther 2:12; Psalms 23:5; Psalms 92:10; Psalms 104:15; Psalms 141:5; Ezekiel 16:9; Micah 6:15; Luke 7:46).

(3) As a Medicine.

From early Egyptian literature down to late Arabic medical works, oil is mentioned as a valuable remedy. Many queer prescriptions contain olive oil as one of their ingredients. The good Samaritan used oil mingled with wine to dress the wounds of the man who fell among robbers (Mark 6:13; John 10:1–42.)

(4) As a Food.

Olive oil replaces butter to a large extent in the diet of the people of the Mediterranean countries. In Bible lands food is fried in it, it is added to stews, and is poured over boiled vegetables, such as beans, peas and lentils, and over salads, sour milk, cheese and other foods as a dressing. A cake is prepared from ordinary bread dough which is smeared with oil and sprinkled with herbs before baking (Leviticus 2:4). At times of fasting oriental Christians use only vegetable oils, usually olive oil, for cooking. For Biblical references to the use of oil as food see Numbers 11:8; Deuteronomy 7:13; Deuteronomy 14:23; Deuteronomy 32:13; 1 Kings 17:12,1 Kings 17:14,1 Kings 17:16; 2 Kings 4:2,2 Kings 4:6,2 Kings 4:7; 1 Chronicles 12:40; 2 Chronicles 2:10,2 Chronicles 2:15; Ezra 3:7; Proverbs 21:17; Ezekiel 16:13,Ezekiel 16:18; Hosea 2:5,Hosea 2:8,Hosea 2:22; Haggai 2:12; Revelation 6:6.

(5) As an Illuminant.

Olive oil until recent years was universally used for lighting purposes (see LAMP). In Palestine are many homes where a most primitive form of lamp similar to those employed by the Israelites is still in use. The prejudice in favor of the exclusive use of olive oil for lighting holy places is disappearing. Formerly any other illuminant was forbidden (compare Exodus 25:6; Exodus 27:20; Exodus 35:8,Exodus 35:14,Exodus 35:28; Exodus 39:37; Matthew 25:3,Matthew 25:4,Matthew 25:8).

(6) In Religious Rites.

(a) Consecration:

Consecration of officials or sacred things (Genesis 28:18; Genesis 35:14; Exodus 29:7,Exodus 29:21; Leviticus 2:1 Numbers 4:9 1 Samuel 10:1; 1 Samuel 16:1,1 Samuel 16:13; 2 Samuel 1:21; 1 Kings 1:39; 2 Kings 9:1,2 Kings 9:3,2 Kings 9:1; Psalms 89:20): This was adopted by the early Christians in their ceremonies (James 5:14), and is still used in the consecration of crowned rulers and church dignitaries.

(b) Offerings:

Offerings, votive and otherwise: The custom of making offerings of oil to holy places still survives in oriental religions. One may see burning before the shrines along a Syrian roadside or in the churches, small lamps whose supply of oil is kept renewed by pious adherents. In Israelite times oil was used in the meal offering, in the consecration offerings, offerings of purification from leprosy, etc. (Exodus 29:2; Exodus 40:9 Leviticus 2:2 Numbers 4:9 Deuteronomy 18:4; 1 Chronicles 9:29; 2 Chronicles 31:5; Nehemiah 10:37,Nehemiah 10:39; Nehemiah 13:5,Nehemiah 13:12; Ezekiel 16:18,Ezekiel 16:19; Ezekiel 16:45; Ezekiel 16:46; Micah 6:7).

(c) Burials:

In connection with the burial of the dead: Egyptian papyri mention this use. In the Old Testament no direct mention is made of the custom. Jesus referred to it in connection with His own burial (Matthew 26:12; Mark 14:3–8; Luke 23:56; John 12:3–8; John 19:40).

4. Figurative Uses:

Abundant oil was a figure of general prosperity (Deuteronomy 32:13; Deuteronomy 33:24; 2 Kings 18:32; Job 29:6; Joel 2:19,Joel 2:24). Languishing of the oil indicated general famine (Joel 1:10; Haggai 1:11). Joy is described as the oil of joy (Isaiah 61:3), or the oil of gladness (Psalms 45:7; Hebrews 1:9). Ezekiel prophesies that the rivers shall run like oil, i.e. become viscous (Ezekiel 32:14). Words of deceit are softer than oil (Psalms 55:21; Proverbs 5:3). Cursing becomes a habit with the wicked as readily as oil soaks into bones (Psalms 109:18). Excessive use of oil indicates wastefulness (Proverbs 21:17), while the saving of it is a characteristic of the wise (Proverbs 21:20). Oil was carried into Egypt, i.e. a treaty was made with that country (Hosea 12:1).

James A. Patch

Oil Press

See OIL; WINE PRESS.

Oil Tree

oil tre ('ets shemen (Isaiah 41:19), margin "oleaster," in Nehemiah 8:15, translated "wild olive," the King James Version "pine"; 'atse shemen, in 1 Kings 6:23,1 Kings 6:31,1 Kings 6:32, translated "olive wood"): The name "oleaster" used to be applied to the wild olive, but now belongs to quite another plant, the silver-berry, Eleagnus hortensis (Natural Order Elaeagnaceae), known in Arabic as Zeizafan. It is a pretty shrub with sweet-smelling white flowers and silver-grey-green leaves. It is difficult to see how all the three references can apply to this tree; it will suit the first two, but this small shrub would never supply wood for carpentry work such as that mentioned in 1 Kings, hence, the translation "olive wood." On the other hand, in the reference in Nehemiah 8:15, olive branches are mentioned just before, so the translation "wild olive" (the difference being too slight) is improbable. Post suggests the translation of 'ets shemen by PINE (which see), which if accepted would suit all the requirements.

E. W. G. Masterman

Oil, Anointing

(shemen hamishchah): This holy oil, the composition of which is described in Exodus 30:22–33, was designed for use in the anointing of the tabernacle, its furniture and vessels, the altar and laver, and the priest, that being thus consecrated, they might be "most holy." It was to be "a holy anointing oil" unto Yahweh throughout all generations (30:31). On its uses, compare Exodus 37:29; Leviticus 8:12; Leviticus 10:7; Leviticus 21:10. The care of this holy oil was subsequently entrusted to Eleazar (Numbers 4:16); in later times it seems to have been prepared by the sons of the priests (1 Chronicles 9:30). There is a figurative allusion to the oil on Aaron's head in Psalms 133:2.

See OIL; ANOINTING.

James Orr

Oil, Beaten

(Exodus 27:20; Leviticus 24:2; Numbers 28:5).

See OIL; CANDLESTICK, THE GOLDEN.

Oil, Holy

See OIL; ANOINTING.

Oil, Olive

See OIL; OLIVE TREE.

Oil-Making

See CRAFTS, II, 11.

Ointment

oint'-ment: The present use of the word "ointment" is to designate a thick unguent of buttery or tallow-like consistency. the King James Version in frequent instances translates shemen or meshach (see Exodus 30:25) "ointment" where a perfumed oil seemed to be indicated. the American Standard Revised Version has consequently substituted the word "oil" in most of the passages. Merqachah is rendered "ointment" once in the Old Testament (Job 41:31 (Hebrew 41:23)). The well-known power of oils and fats to absorb odors was made use of by the ancient perfumers. The composition of the holy anointing oil used in the tabernacle worship is mentioned in Exodus 30:23–25. Olive oil formed the base. This was scented with "flowing myrrh .... sweet cinnamon .... sweet calamus .... and .... cassia." The oil was probably mixed with the above ingredients added in a powdered form and heated until the oil had absorbed their odors and then allowed to stand until the insoluble matter settled, when the oil could be decanted. Olive oil, being a non-drying oil which does not thicken readily, yielded an ointment of oily consistency. This is indicated by Psalms 133:2, where it says that the precious oil ran down on Aaron's beard and on the collar of his outer garment. Anyone attempting to make the holy anointing oil would be cut off from his people (Exodus 30:33). The scented oils or ointments were kept in jars or vials (not boxes) made of alabaster. These jars are frequently found as part of the equipment of ancient tombs.

The word translated "ointment" in the New Testament is muron, "myrrh." This would indicate that myrrh, an aromatic gum resin, was the substance commonly added to the oil to give it odor. In Luke 7:46 both kinds of oil are mentioned, and the verse might be paraphrased thus: My head with common oil thou didst not anoint; but she hath anointed my feet with costly scented oil.

For the uses of scented oils or ointments see ANOINTING; OIL.

James A. Patch

Olamus

ol'-a-mus (Olamos): One of the Israelites who had taken a "strange wife" (1 Esdras 9:30) equals "Meshullam" of Ezra 10:29.

Old

old.

See AGE, OLD.

Old Gate

See JERUSALEM.

Old Man

(palaios, "old," "ancient"): A term thrice used by Paul (Romans 6:6; Ephesians 4:22; Colossians 3:9) to signify the unrenewed man, the natural man in the corruption of sin, i.e. sinful human nature before conversion and regeneration. It is theologically synonymous with "flesh" (Romans 8:3–9), which stands, not for bodily organism, but, for the whole nature of man (body and soul) turned away from God and devoted to self and earthly things.

The old man is "in the flesh"; the new man "in the Spirit." In the former "the works of the flesh" (Galatians 5:19–21) are manifest; in the latter "the fruit of the Spirit" (Galatians 5:22,Galatians 5:23). One is "corrupt according to the deceitful lusts"; the other "created in righteousness and true holiness" (Ephesians 4:22–24 the King James Version).

See also MAN, NATURAL; MAN.

Dwight M. Pratt

Old Prophet, The

(nabhi' 'echadh zaqen, "an old prophet" (1 Kings 13:11), ha-nabhi' ha-zaqen, "the old prophet" (1 Kings 13:29)):

1. The Narrative:

The narrative of 1 Kings 13:11–32, in which the old prophet is mentioned, is part of a larger account telling of a visit paid to Bethel by "a man of God" from Judah. The Judean prophet uttered a curse upon the altar erected there by Jeroboam I. When the king attempted to use force against him, the prophet was saved by divine intervention; the king then invited him to receive royal hospitality, but he refused because of a command of God to him not to eat or drink there. The Judean then departed (13:1-10). An old prophet who lived in Bethel heard of the stranger's words, and went after him and offered him hospitality. This offer too was refused. But when the old prophet resorted to falsehood and pleaded a divine command on the subject, the Judean returned with him. While at table the old prophet is given a message to declare that death will follow the southerner's disobedience to the first command. A lion kills him on his way home. The old prophet hears of the death and explains it as due to disobedience to God; he then buries the dead body in his own grave and expresses a wish that he also at death should be buried in the same sepulcher.

2. Critical:

There are several difficulties in the text. In 1 Kings 13:11, the King James Version reads "his sons came" instead of "one of his sons came," and translation 1 Kings 13:12 b: "And his sons shewed the way the man of God went." There is a gap in the Massoretic Text after the word "table" in 13:20; and 13:23 should be translated, "And it came to pass after he had eaten bread and drunk water, that he saddled for himself the ass, and departed again" (following Septuagint, B with W. B. Stevenson, HDB, III, 594a, note).

Benzinger ("Die Bucher der Konige," Kurz. Hand-Komm. zum Altes Testament, 91) holds that we have here an example of a midrash, i.e. according to LOT, 529, "an imaginative development of a thought or theme suggested by Scripture, especially a didactic or homiletic exposition or an edifying religious story." 2 Chronicles 24:27 refers to a "midhrash of the book of the kings," and 2 Chronicles 13:22 to a "midrash of the prophet Iddo." In 2 Chronicles 9:29 we have a reference to "the visions of Iddo the seer concerning Jeroboam the son of Nebat." Josephus names the Judean prophet Jadon (Ant., VIII, viii, 5), and so some would trace this narrative to the midrash of Iddo, which would be a late Jewish work. There is a trace of late Hebrew in 1 Kings 13:3, and evidence in several places of a later editing of the original narrative. Kittel and Benzinger think it possible that the section may be based on a historical incident. If the narrative is historical in the main, the mention of Josiah by name in 13:2 may be a later insertion; if not historical, the prophecy there is ex eventu, and the whole section a midrash on 2 Kings 23:15–20.

3. Central Truths:

(1) Several questions are suggested by the narrative, but in putting as well as in answering these questions, it must be remembered that the old prophet himself, as has been pointed out, is not the chief character of the piece. Hence, it is a little pointless to ask what became of the old prophet, or whether he was not punished for his falsehood. The passage should be studied, like the parables of Jesus, with an eye on the great central truth, which is, here, that God punishes disobedience even in "a man of God." It is not inconsistent with this to regard the old prophet as an example of "Satan fashioning himself into an angel of light" (2 Corinthians 11:14), or of the beast which "had two horns like unto a lamb" (Revelation 13:11).

(2) It must also be remembered that the false prophets of the Old Testament are called prophets in spite of their false prophecies. So here the old prophet in spite of his former lie is given a divine message to declare that death will follow the other's disobedience.

(3) One other question suggests itself, and demands an answer. Why did the old prophet make the request that at death he should be buried in the same grave as the Judean (1 Kings 13:31)? The answer is implied in 1 Kings 13:32, and is more fully given in 2 Kings 23:15–20, where King Josiah defiles the graves of the prophets at Bethel. On seeing a "monument" or grave-stone by one of the graves, he inquires what it is, and is told that it marks the grave of the prophet from Judah. Thereupon he orders that his bones be not disturbed. With these the bones of the old prophet escape. Perhaps no clearer instance of a certain kind of meanness exists in the Old Testament. The very man who has been the cause of another's downfall and ruin is base enough to plan his own escape under cover of the virtues of his victim. And the parallels in modern life are many.

David Francis Roberts

Old Testament

See TEXT OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.

Old Testament Canon

See CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.

Old Testament Languages

See LANGUAGES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.

Oleaster

o-le-as'-ter (Isaiah 41:19 the Revised Version margin).

See OIL TREE.

Olive

See OLIVE TREE.

Olive Berries

ber'-iz.

See OLIVE TREE.