Oracle – Ostraca

Oracle

or'-a-k'-l:

(1) A divine utterance delivered to man, usually in answer to a request for guidance. So in 2 Samuel 16:23 for dabhar ("word," as in the Revised Version margin). The use in this passage seems to indicate that at an early period oracular utterances were sought from Yahweh by the Israelites, but the practice certainly fell into disuse at the rise of prophecy, and there are no illustrations of the means employed (1 Samuel 14:18,1 Samuel 14:19,1 Samuel 14:36–42, etc., belong rather to DIVINATION (which see)). In. the Revised Version margin of such passages as Isaiah 13:1, "oracle" is used in the titles of certain special prophecies as a substitute for BURDEN (which see) (massa'), with considerable advantage (especially in Lamentations 2:14).

(2) In heathen temples "oracle" was used for the chamber in which the utterances were delivered (naturally a most sacred part of the structure). This usage, coupled with a mistake in Hebrew philology (connecting debhir, "hinder part," with dibber, "speak"), caused English Versions of the Bible to give the title "oracle" to the Most Holy Place of the Temple, in 1 Kings 6:5, etc., following the example of Aquila, Symmachus and the Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) But the title is very unfortunate, as the Most Holy Place had nothing to do with the delivery of oracles, and the Revised Version (British and American) should have corrected (compare Psalms 28:2 margin).

(3) In the New Testament English Versions of the Bible employs "oracle" as the translation of logion, "saying," in four places. In all, divine utterances are meant, specialized in Acts 7:38 as the Mosaic Law ("living oracles" equals "commandments enforced by the living God"), in Romans 3:2 as the Old Testament in general, and in Hebrews 5:12 as the revelations of Christianity (Hebrews 6:2,Hebrews 6:3). In 1 Peter 4:11 the meaning is debated, but probably the command is addressed to those favored by a supernatural "gift of speech." Such men must keep their own personality in the background, adding nothing of their own to the inspired message as it comes to them.

Burton Scott Easton

Oracles, Sibylline

sib'-i-lin, -lin.

See APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE, sec. V.

Orator; Ortion

or'-a-ter, o-ra'-shun: The word "orator" occurs twice:

(1) As the King James Version rendering of lachash; only Isaiah 3:3, "the eloquent orator," the King James Version margin "skilful of speech," where the Revised Version (British and American) rightly substitutes "the skillful enchanter." The word lachash is probably a mimetic word meaning "a hiss," "a whisper" and is used in the sense of "incantation" "charm." Hence, nebhon lachash means "skillful in incantation," "expert in magic." See DIVINATION; ENCHANTMENT.

(2) As the rendering of rhetor, the title applied to Tertullus, who appeared as the advocate of the Jewish accusers of Paul before Felix (Acts 24:1). The proceedings, as was generally the case in the provincial Roman courts, would probably be conducted in Latin, and under Roman modes of procedure, in which the parties would not be well versed; hence, the need of a professional advocate. Rhetor is here the equivalent of the older Greek sunegoros, "the prosecuting counsel," as opposed to the sundikos, "the defendant's advocate."

Oration occurs only in Acts 12:21: "Herod .... made an oration unto them" (edemegorei pros autous). The verb demegoreo, "to speak in an assembly" (from demos, "people," agoreuo, "to harangue"), is often found in classical Greek, generally in a bad sense (Latin concionari); here only in the New Testament.

D. Miall Edwards

Orchard

or'-cherd:

(1) pardec, from Old Persian, "a walled-in enclosure"; paradeisos, a word in classical Greek applied to the garden of Babylon (Diodorus Siculus xi.10) and to a game park (Xenophon, Anab. i.2, 7). See Nehemiah 2:8, "forest," margin "park"; Song of Songs 4:13, "orchard," margin "paradise" (of pomegranates); Ecclesiastes 2:5, "parks," the King James Version "orchards"; see PARADISE.

(2) kepos, "garden" or "orchard": "a white thorn in an orchard" (Baruch 6:71).

Ordain; Ordination

or-dan', or-di-na-shun (Latin ordinare, "to set in order" "to arrange"; in post-Augustan Latin "to appoint to office"; from ordo, gen. ordinis, "order," "arrangement"): In the King James Version the verb "to ordain" renders as many as 35 different words (11 Hebrew words in the Old Testament, 21 Greek words in Apocrypha and the New Testament, and 3 Latin words in Apocrypha). This is due to the fact that the English word has many shades of meaning (especially as used in the time the King James Version was made), of which the following are the chief:

(1) To set in order, arrange, prepare:

"All things that we ordained festival,

Turn from their office to black funeral."

--Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, IV, v, 84.

This meaning is now obsolete. It is found in the King James Version of Psalms 132:17; Isaiah 30:33; Hebrews 9:6 (in each of which cases the Revised Version (British and American) or margin substitutes "prepare"); 1 Chronicles 17:9 (the Revised Version (British and American) "appoint"); Psalms 7:13 (the Revised Version (British and American) "maketh"); Habakkuk 1:12 (also the Revised Version (British and American)).

(2) To establish, institute, bring into being: "When first this order (i.e. the Garter) was ordained, my Lord" (Shakespeare). So in 1 Kings 12:32, "Jeroboam ordained a feast in the 8th month" (12:33); Numbers 28:6; Psalms 8:2,Psalms 8:3; Isaiah 26:12; /RAPC 2Es 6:49 the King James Version (the Revised Version (British and American) "preserve"); Sirach 7:15; Galatians 3:19.

(3) To decree, give orders, prescribe:

"And doth the power that man adores

Ordain their doom " --Byron.

So Esther 9:27, "The Jews ordained .... that they would keep these two days according to the writing thereof"; 1 Esdras 6:34; 2 Esdras 7:17; 8:14 the King James Version; Tobit 1:6; 8:7 the King James Version (the Revised Version (British and American) "command"); Additions to Esther 14:9; 1 Macc 4:59; 7:49; Acts 16:4; Romans 7:10 the King James Version; 1 Corinthians 2:7; 1 Corinthians 7:17; 1 Corinthians 9:14; Ephesians 2:10 the King James Version.

(4) To set apart for an office or duty, appoint, destine: "Being ordained his special governor" (Shakespeare). Frequent in EV. When the King James Version has "ordain" in this sense, the Revised Version (British and American) generally substitutes "appoint"; e.g. "He (Jesus) appointed (the King James Version "ordained") twelve, that they might be with him" (Mark 3:14). So 2 Chronicles 11:15; Jeremiah 1:5; Daniel 2:24; 1 Esdras 8:49; 1Ma 3:55; 10:20; John 15:16; Acts 14:23; 1 Timothy 2:7; Titus 1:5; Hebrews 5:1; Hebrews 8:3. The Revised Version (British and American) substitutes "formedst" in The Wisdom of Solomon 9:2, "recorded" in Sirach 48:10, "become" in Acts 1:22, "written of" (margin "set forth") in Jude 1:4, but retains "ordain" in the sense of "appoint," "set apart," in 2 Kings 23:5; 1 Chronicles 9:22; 1 Chronicles 9:1 Esdras 8:23; Additions to Esther 13:6; Acts 10:42; Acts 13:48; Acts 17:31; Romans 13:1.

(5) To appoint ceremonially to the ministerial or priestly office, to confer holy orders on. This later technical or ecclesiastical sense is never found in English Versions of the Bible. The nearest approach is (4) above, but the idea of formal or ceremonial setting-apart to office (prominent in its modern usage) is never implied in the word.

Ordination: The act of arranging in regular order, especially the act of investing with ministerial or sacerdotal rank (ordo), the setting-apart for an office in the Christian ministry. The word does not occur in English Version of the Bible. The New Testament throws but little light on the origin of the later ecclesiastical rite of ordination. The 12 disciples were not set apart by any formal act on the part of Jesus. In Mark 3:14; John 15:16, the King James Version rendering "ordain" is, in view of its modern usage, misleading; nothing more is implied than an appointment or election. In John 20:21–23, we have indeed a symbolic act of consecration ("He breathed on them"), but "the act is described as one and not repeated. The gift was once for all, not to individuals but to the abiding body" (Westcott, at the place). In the Apostolic age there is no trace of the doctrine of an outward rite conferring inward grace, though we have instances of the formal appointment or recognition of those who had already given proof of their spiritual qualification.

(1) The Seven were chosen by the brethren as men already "full of the Spirit and of wisdom," and were then "appointed" by the Twelve, who prayed and laid their hands upon them (Acts 6:1–6).

(2) The call of Barnabas and Saul came direct from God (Acts 13:2, "the work whereunto I have called them"; Acts 13:4, they were "sent forth by the Holy Spirit"). Yet certain prophets and teachers were instructed by the Holy Spirit to "separate" them (i.e. publicly) for their work, which they did by fasting and praying and laying on of hands (Acts 13:3). But it was utterly foreign to Paul's point of view to regard the church's act as constituting him an apostle (compare Galatians 1:1).

(3) Barnabas and Paul are said to have "ordained," the Revised Version (British and American) "appointed" (cheirotonesantes, "elect," "appoint," without indicating the particular mode of appointment), elders or presbyters in every city with prayers and fasting (Acts 14:23). So Titus was instructed by Paul to "appoint elders in every city" in Crete (Titus 1:5).

(4) The gift of Timothy for evangelistic work seems to have been formally recognized in two ways:

(a) by the laying on of the hands of the presbytery (1 Timothy 4:14),

(b) by the laying on of the hands of Paul himself (2 Timothy 1:6). The words "Lay hands hastily on no man" (1 Timothy 5:22) do not refer to an act of ordination, but probably to the restoration of the penitent. The reference in Hebrews 6:2 is not exclusively to ordination, but to all occasions of laying on of hands (see HANDS, IMPOSITION OF). From the few instances mentioned above (the only ones found in the New Testament), we infer that it was regarded as advisable that persons holding high office in the church should be publicly recognized in some way, as by laying on of hands, fasting, and public prayer. But no great emphasis was laid on this rite, hence, "it can hardly be likely that any essential principle was held to be involved in it" (Hort, The Christian Ecclesia, 216). It was regarded as an outward act of approval, a symbolic offering of intercessory prayer, and an emblem of the solidarity of the Christian community, rather than an indispensable channel of grace for the work of the ministry. (For the later ecclesiastical doctrine and rite see Edwin Hatch's valuable article on "Ordination" in the Dictionary of Christian Antiquity)

D. Miall Edwards

Order

or'-der (`arakh, "to arrange"; tassein ( diatassein, taxis, tagma)): "Order" in Biblical phrases may indicate

(1) arrangement in rows,

(2) sequence in time,

(3) classification and organization,

(4) likeness or manner,

(5) regulation, direction or command, or

(6) the declaring of a will.

In many passages it is difficult if not impossible to determine from the English text alone in which of these senses the word is used.

1. Arrangement in Rows:

The fundamental idea suggested by the Hebrew, Greek and English words is that of arrangement in rows. Thus "order" is used in the Bible of arranging wood for an altar (Leviticus 1:7; 1 Kings 18:33; compare Hebrew Genesis 22:9; Isaiah 30:33); of laying out flax-stalks for drying (Joshua 2:6); of preparing offerings (Leviticus 1:8,Leviticus 1:12; compare Luke 6:5; Judges 6:26); of arranging lamps (Exodus 27:21; Exodus 39:37; Leviticus 24:3,Leviticus 24:4; compare Psalms 132:17); of placing the shewbread on the table (Exodus 40:4,Exodus 40:23; Leviticus 6:12; Leviticus 24:8; 2 Chronicles 13:11); of drawing up the battle array (1 Chronicles 12:38 (Hebrew 39, `adhar)); and of arranging weapons in order for battle (Jeremiah 46:3, the American Standard Revised Version "prepare"). As a verb "to order" in the older versions usually has the obsolete sense "to arrange" and not the more usual English meanings, "to demand" or "to direct." Thus: "In the tent of meeting shall Aaron order it" (Leviticus 24:4, the American Standard Revised Version "keep in order"); "Order ye the buckler and shield" (Jeremiah 46:3; compare Psalms 119:133; Job 23:4, the American Standard Revised Version "set in order"; Judith 2:16; The Wisdom of Solomon 8:1; 15:1; Ecclesiasticus 2:6). The Hebrew pa`am (literally, "hoof-beat," "occurrence," "repetition") in the plural conveys the idea of an architectural plan (Ezekiel 41:6). Another word, shalabh, literally, "to join," in connection with the tabernacle, has in some versions been translated as including the idea of orderly arrangement (Exodus 26:17). The word "order" standing by itself may mean orderly or proper arrangement (1 Esdras 1:10; The Wisdom of Solomon 7:29; 1 Macc 6:40; Colossians 2:5). Akin to the idea of arranging things in a row is that of arranging words (Job 33:5; Job 37:19; Psalms 5:3), of recounting things in order (Isaiah 44:7; Luke 1:1 the King James Version (diatassein); Luke 1:3; Acts 11:4 (kathexes)), of setting forth a legal case (Job 23:4; Job 13:18; compare Psalms 50:21). From the idea of arranging in order for the purpose of comparison the Hebrew `arakh acquires the meaning "to compare" (Isaiah 40:18; Psalms 89:7). This is clearly the meaning of 'en `arokh 'elekha (Psalms 40:5 (Hebrews 6:1–20)), where "They cannot be set in order unto thee" must be interpreted to mean "There is nothing that can be compared unto thee."

2. Sequence in Time:

As the fundamental meaning of `arakh is arrangement in space, that of cadhar is order or sequence in time. In later Hebrew cedher was used in the sense of "program." In Job 10:22 lo' cedharim, absence of regularity, in the description of the uncertain period that follows death probably means "confusion in time." (The Septuagint (pheggos) suggests, in the place of cedharim, a word for "light," possibly tsohorayim.) In the New Testament we find "order" used of time in connection with the resurrection of the dead (1 Corinthians 15:23 (tagma)) and of a succession of places visited (Acts 18:23 (kathexes)). The phrase "in order unto" (Psalms 119:38) expresses causal sequence and hence, purpose.

3. Classification and Organization:

The idea of classification is present in the Hebrew taqan, translated "set in order," with reference to a collection of proverbs (Ecclesiastes 12:9). The same stem is used with reference to the arranging of singers before the altar (Hebrew Ecclesiasticus 47:9), The classification of priests according to their service is spoken of as "ordering" (1 Chronicles 24:3,1 Chronicles 24:19, Hebrew paqadh). Next to the high priests ranked priests of the second order (mishneh, 2 Kings 23:4; compare 25:18 parallel Jeremiah 52:24). The related concept of organization is present where the Hebrew kun (literally, "to establish".) is translated "order" (Isaiah 9:7 the King James Version, "to establish" the American Standard Revised Version; Psalms 119:133; 2 Chronicles 29:35; compare 1 Macc 16:14). A similar use of the term "order" is found in the New Testament in connection with the organization of the affairs of the church (1 Corinthians 16:1 (diatassein); Titus 1:5 (epidiorthoo); 1 Corinthians 11:34).

4. Likeness or Manner:

"Order," in the sense of likeness or manner, is used in the phrase "after the order of Melchisedek" to translate the Hebrew `al dibherath, or rather the archaic form `al dibherathi (Psalms 110:4), which in other passages is translated "because of" (compare Ecclesiastes 3:18; Ecclesiastes 7:14; Ecclesiastes 8:2). This well-known phrase is rendered in Septuagint kata ten taxin, a translation adopted in Hebrews 5:6,Hebrews 5:10; Hebrews 6:20; Hebrews 7:11,Hebrews 7:17, where the passage from Psalm is made the basis of an extended argument, in the course of which "order" is taken in the sense of "likeness" (Hebrews 7:16).

5. Regulation, Direction, Command:

In the sense of regulation, we find "order" as a translation of mishpaT (which is literally, "the ruling of a shopheT," whether as a judicial decree or legislative act) in connection with the conduct of priests (1 Chronicles 6:32 (Hebrew 17); 2 Chronicles 30:16; compare Luke 1:8; 1 Esdras 1:6), and with reference to the Nazirite regulations in the story of Samson (Judges 13:12, the Revised Version (British and American) "manner"), church services (1 Corinthians 14:40) and, in the older English VSS, with reference to other ritual matters (1 Chronicles 15:13; 1 Chronicles 23:31; 2 Chronicles 8:14, the American Standard Revised Version "ordinance"). The phrase `al yadh, literally, "according to the hand of," translated in Ezra 3:10; 1 Chronicles 25:2 b,3,6 twice in various ways, means "under the direction of," or "under the order of," as translated in the last instance. The modern sense of "command" is suggested here and in several other instances (1 Esdras 8:10; 1 Macc 9:55). He "that ordereth his conversation aright" (sam derekh, Psalms 50:23) is probably one who chooses the right path and directs his steps along it. "Who shall order the battle?" (1 Kings 20:14) is corrected in the American Standard Revised Version: "Who shall begin the battle?" (compare 2 Chronicles 13:3, Hebrew 'acar, literally, "to bind," hence, "to join" or "begin"; compare proelium committere).

6. Declaring of Last Will:

The phrase "to set one's house in order" (Isaiah 38:1 parallel 2 Kings 20:1; 2 Samuel 17:23), used of Hezekiah and Ahithophel, in contemplation of death, means to give final instructions to one's household or to make one's will. The Hebrew tsawah used in this phrase is the stem found in the later Hebrew tsawwa'ah, "a verbal will" (Babha' Bathra' 147a, 151b; BDB). Great moral weight was attached in Biblical times to the charges laid upon a household by a deceased father or remoter ancestor, not only as to the disposition of property but also as to personal conduct. (Compare the case of the Rechabites, where the same Hebrew expression is used, tsiwwah `alenu, Jeremiah 35:6.)

Nathan Isaacs

Ordinance

or'-di-nans:

1. Old Testament Use:

This word generally represents chuqqah, something prescribed, enactment, usually with reference to matters of ritual. In the King James Version the same word is frequently translated by "statute" or "statutes," which is also the rendering of a similar Hebrew word, namely, choq. the Revised Version (British and American) generally retains "ordinance," but sometimes substitutes "statute" (e.g. Exodus 18:20; Psalms 99:7). In one instance the Revised Version (British and American) renders "set portion" (Ezekiel 45:14). The word generally has a religious or ceremonial significance. It is used for instance in connection with the Passover (Exodus 12:43; Numbers 9:14). According to Exodus 12:14, the Passover was "an ordinance for ever," i.e. a permanent institution. In the plural the word is often employed, along with such terms as commandments, laws, etc., with reference to the different prescriptions of the Deuteronomic and Priestly codes (Deuteronomy 6:1,Deuteronomy 6:2; Leviticus 18:4).

In 11 passages (Exodus 15:25; Joshua 24:25; 1 Samuel 30:25; 2 Kings 17:34,2 Kings 17:37; 2 Chronicles 33:8; 2 Chronicles 35:13; Psalms 119:91; Isaiah 58:2 twice; Ezekiel 11:20) "ordinance" is the rendering of mishpaT, judgment, decision or sentence by a judge or ruler. In the Book of the Covenant (Exodus 20:22–23:33) the term "judgments" denotes civil, as contrasted with ritual, enactments. In 2 Kings 17:34 the King James Version employs "manners" and "ordinances" as renderings of this word. In 3 passages (Leviticus 18:30; Leviticus 22:9; Malachi 3:14) "ordinance" is the translation of mishmereth, "charge," which the Revised Version (British and American) restores. In one instance (Nehemiah 10:32) ordinance renders mitswah, "commandment," while in Ezra 3:10 the King James Version the phrase "after the ordinance of David" represents a Hebrew phrase which literally means "upon the hands of David," i.e. under the guidance or direction of David.

2. New Testament Use:

In the New Testament, "ordinance" renders different Greek words, namely,

(1) dikaioma, in Luke 1:6 and Hebrews 9:1,Hebrews 9:10. The word means literally, "anything declared right"; but in these passages ceremonial and religious regulation;

(2) dogma, in Ephesians 2:15; Colossians 2:14. In the New Testament this word always means a decree or edict (Acts 17:7);

(3) paradosis, in 1 Corinthians 11:2 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) substitutes "traditions";

(4) ktisis, "setting up," "institution" in 1 Peter 2:13. The term is used exclusively of the action of God. Peter implies that institutions, apparently human, such as the family and the state, are of divine origin. The same doctrine is found in Romans 13:1.

T. Lewis

Ordinances Of Heaven

See ASTRONOMY, sec. I, 1.

Ordination

or-di-na'-shun.

See ORDAIN, ORDINATION.

Oreb

In 2 Esdras 2:33 the King James Version for Mt. HOREB (which see; so the Revised Version (British and American)).

Oreb; Zeeb

o'-reb, ze'-eb, zeb (`orebh, "raven," especially "crow"), and (ze'ebh, "wolf") (Judges 7:25; Revelation 7:3; Psalms 83:11, Isaiah 10:26 (Oreb only)): Two Midianite chieftains captured and beheaded by the Ephraimites, who brought their heads to Gideon.

1. Meaning of Names:

As to the meaning of the two names, both words are found in Arabic. Robertson Smith, Kinship, etc. (190 ff, 218 ff), says that the use of the names of animals as names of persons is a relic of totemism. But Noldeke (ZDMG, XL, 160 ff) and others hold that such a use shows a desire that those so named should be as disagreeable to their enemies as the plant or animal which the name denoted. Some again (e.g. Stade, Geschichte, 189 ff) maintain that the two names here are borrowed from localities and not vice versa, as Judges 7:25 implies. If so, we must take the names to be originally two places, apparently in Ephraim, for the words "beyond Jordan" in 7:25 contradict 8:4, where it is said that Gideon came to the Jordan and passed over. Moore (Jgs, 214) suggests that the two localities were near the junction with the Jordan of the stream that comes from Wady Far`ah. The construction of the Hebrew allows of a translation "the rock (called) Oreb," and "the winepress (called) Zeeb."

2. The Battle of Oreb:

The account of a battle here is corroborated by Isaiah 10:26, a verse which mentions the "rock of Oreb," and suggests that the great defeat of the Midianites took place there (compare Isaiah 9:4). The passage in Isaiah 10:24–26 is prose, however, and is said to be late editing (see G.H. Box, Isa, 65). In Psalms 83:11 (Hebrew 12) there is a prayer that God would make the "nobles" among the Psalmist's enemies as Oreb and Zeeb.

David Francis Roberts

Oren

o'-ren ('oren; Aram, Alex. Aran): A son of Jerahmeel, the firstborn of Hezron (1 Chronicles 2:25).

Organ

or'-gan.

See MUSIC.

Orion

o-ri'-on: A brilliant constellation dedicated to Nimrod or Merodach.

See ASTRONOMY, sec. II, 11.

Ornament

or'-na-ment (`adhi, "adornment"): In common with all the Orientals, the Hebrews were very fond of wearing ornaments, and their tendency to extravagance of this kind often met with stern prophetic rebuke (Isaiah 3:16–24; Ezekiel 13:18–20). On this subject, little is said in the New Testament apart from Jesus' (Luke 7:25; Luke 12:23) and James' (James 2:2) invectives against meretricious estimates of moral character. Yet the employment of attractive attire receives sanction in the divine example of Ezekiel 16:10–14.

Ornaments in general would include finely embroidered or decorated fabrics, such as the priest's dress or the high-priestly attire, and the richly wrought veil, girdle and turban used by the wealthier class. But the term may be limited here to the various rings, bracelets and chains made of precious metals and more or less jeweled (compare Jeremiah 2:32).

These latter, described in detail under their own titles, may be summarized here as finger-rings, particularly prized as seal-rings (Genesis 38:18,Genesis 38:25; Jeremiah 22:24); arm-rings or bracelets (Genesis 24:22; 2 Samuel 1:10); earrings (Genesis 35:4; Exodus 32:2); noserings (Genesis 24:47; Ezekiel 16:12); anklets or ankle-chains (Isaiah 3:16,Isaiah 3:18); head-bands or fillets or cauls (referred to in Isaiah 3:18 only), and necklaces or neck-chains (Genesis 41:42; Ezekiel 16:11).

Figurative: The universal devotion to ornament among the Orientals is the occasion for frequent Biblical allusions to the beauty and splendor of fine jewelry and attire. But everywhere, in divine injunctions, the emphasis of value is placed upon the beauty of holiness as an inward grace rather than on the attractions of outward ornament (Job 40:10; Psalms 110:3; Joel 2:13; 1 Timothy 2:9,1 Timothy 2:10; 1 Peter 3:4). In grievous sorrow, all ornament was to be laid aside in token of mourning (Exodus 33:4–6).

Leonard W. Doolan

Ornan

or'-nan (1 Chronicles 21:15).

See ARAUNAH.

Orpah

or'-pa (`orpah; for meaning see below): A Moabitess, wife of Mahlon, son of Elimelech and Naomi. Unlike her sister Ru she returned to her own people after escorting Naomi on her way to Judah (Ruth 1:4). Her name is supposed to be derived from the Hebrew word for "neck" (`oreph), and so to mean "stiff-necked" because of her turning-back from following her mother-in-law; others take it to mean "gazelle."

Orphan

or'-fan: This word occurs once only in the Old Testament (Lamentations 5:3, where it stands for yathom, elsewhere rendered "fatherless," and in the Septuagint always orphanos); in the Apocrypha it occurs 3 times (2 Esdras 2:20; Tobit 1:8; 2 Macc 8:28). There is no clear case where it means the loss of both parents. The Scriptures devote considerable attention to the widow and orphan, and the idea is that the child is fatherless. It is not found in the King James Version of the New Testament; but the Greek word orphanos occurs twice, John 14:18 (the King James Version "comfortless," the Revised Version (British and American) "desolate," margin "orphans") and James 1:27 ("fatherless").

See FATHERLESS.

D. Miall Edwards

Orthosia

or-tho-si'-a (Orthosias; the King James Version Orthosias): The city to which Tryphon fled when he escaped from Dora, where he was besieged by Antiochus Sidetes (1 Macc 15:37). According to Pliny (NH, v.17) it lay South of the river Eleutherus, and North of the city of Tripolis. The Peutinger Tables place it 12 Roman miles North of Tripolis and 30 miles South of Antaradus on the Phoenician coast. Porter would place it on the southern bank of Nahr el-Barid.

Osaias

o-za'-yas, o-sa'-yas (Osaias; Codex Vaticanus omits): In 1 Esdras 8:48 a corruption of Jeshaiah (compare Ezra 8:19).

Osea

o-ze'-a, o-se'-a: In 2 Esdras 13:40 equals HOSHEA, king of Israel (which see).

Oseas

o-ze'-as, o-se'-as: "Osee" in 2 Esdras 1:39; the prophet Hosea.

Osee

o'-ze, o'-se (Hosee): the King James Version in Romans 9:25; the prophet Hosea (thus the Revised Version (British and American)).

Oshea

o-she'-a, o'-she-a (the Revised Version (British and American) "Hoshea" (Numbers 13:8,Numbers 13:16)): The original name of Joshua, the son of Nun, changed by Moses (Numbers 13:16) from Hoshea (hoshea`, "help") to Joshua (yehoshua`, "help of Yahweh").

See JOSHUA.

Osnappar

os-nap'-ar (Ezra 4:10).

See ASHURBANIPAL.

Ospray

os'-pra (`ozniyah; haliaetos; Latin Pandion haliaetus): A large hawk preferring a diet of fish. The word is found in the list of abominations only. See Leviticus 11:13; Deuteronomy 14:12. The osprey was quite similar in appearance to some of the smaller eagles, and by some it is thought that the short-toed eagle is intended. But the eagle and the gier-eagle had been specified, and on account of the osprey plunging into water for food and having feet bare to the lower leg-joint and plumage of brighter and more distinctive marking, it seems very probable that it was recognized as a distinctive species, and so named separately. Moreover, the osprey was not numerous as were other hawks and eagles. It was a bird that lived almost wholly on fish, and these were not plentiful in the waters of Palestine. This would tend to make it a marked bird, so no doubt the translation is correct as it stands, as any hawk that lived on fish would have been barred as an article of diet (see Tristram, Natural History of the Bible, 182; also Studers, Birds of North America, p. 16).

Gene Stratton-Porter

Ossifrage

os'-i-fraj (perec; gups; Let Ossifraga): The great bearded vulture known as the lammer-geier (Leviticus 11:13; Deuteronomy 14:12 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "gier-eagle"). The Hebrew name perec means "to break." Let oasis, "bone," and frangere, "to break," indicate the most noticeable habit of the bird. It is the largest of the vulture family, being 3 1/2 ft. in length and 10 in sweep. It has a white head, black beard on the chin, and the part of the eye commonly called the "white" in most animals, which is visible in but few birds, in this family is pronounced and of a deep angry red, thus giving the bird a formidable appearance. The back is grayish black, the feathers finely penciled, the shaft being white, the median line tawny. The under parts are tawny white and the feet and talons powerful. It differs from the vulture in that it is not a consistent carrion feeder, but prefers to take prey of the size captured by some of the largest eagles. It took its name from the fact that after smaller vultures and eagles had stripped a carcass to the last shred of muscle, the lammergeier then carried the skeleton aloft and dropped it repeatedly until the marrow from the broken bones could be eaten. It is also very fond of tortoise, the meat of which it secures in the same manner. As this bird frequents Southern Europe, it is thought to be the one that mistook the bald head of Aeschylus, the poet, for a stone and let fall on it the tortoise that caused his death. This bird also attacks living prey of the size of lambs, kids and hares. It is not numerous and does not flock, but pairs live in deep gorges and rocky crevices. It builds an enormous nest, deposits one pinkish or yellowish egg, and the young is black. It requires two years to develop the red eyes, finely penciled plumage and white head of the adult bird. It was included among the abominations because of its diet of carrion.

Gene Stratton-Porter

Ostraca

os'-tra-ka: The word ostracon ("potsherd," Hebrew cheres) occurs in Job 2:8 (Septuagint), kai elaben ostrakon, "and he took him a potsherd." Earthen vessels were in universal use in antiquity (they are twice mentioned in the New Testament: skeue ostrakina (2 Corinthians 4:7; 2 Timothy 2:20)), and the broken fragments of them, which could be picked up almost anywhere, were made to serve various purposes. Upon the smoothest of these pieces of unglazed pottery the poorest might write in ink his memoranda, receipts, letters or texts.

1. Hebrew Ostraca:

A fortunate discovery at Samaria (1910), made among the ruins of Ahab's palace, has brought to light 75 Hebrew ostraca inscribed with ink, in the Phoenician character, with accounts and memoranda relating to private matters and dating probably from the time of Ahab. Their historical contribution, aside from the mention of many names of persons and places, is slender, but for ancient Hebrew writing and to a less extent for Hebrew words and forms they are of value, while the fact that in them we possess documents actually penned in Israel in the 9th century BC gives them extraordinary interest. The nature of ostraca tends to their preservation under conditions which would quickly destroy parchment, skin or papyrus, and this discovery in Palestine encourages the hope of further and more significant finds.

2. Greek Ostraca:

Greek ostraca in large quantities have been found in Egypt, preserving documents of many kinds, chiefly tax receipts. The texts of some 2,000 of these have been published, principally by Wilcken (Griechische Ostraka, 2 volumes, 1899), and serve to illustrate in unexpected ways the everyday Greek speech of the common people of Egypt through the Ptolemaic, Roman and Byzantine periods. Like the papyri, they help to throw light on New Testament syntax and lexicography, as well as on ancient life in general.

3. New Testament Ostraca:

It is said that Cleanthes the Stoic, being too poor to buy papyrus, used to write on ostraca, but no remains of classical literature have been found on the ostraca thus far discovered. In some instances, however, Christian literary texts are preserved upon ostraca. Some years ago Bouriant bought in Upper Egypt 20 ostraca, probably of the 7th century, inscribed with the Greek text of parts of the Gospels. The ostraca are of different sizes, and preserve among others one long continuous passage (Luke 22:40–71), which runs over 10 of the pieces. The ostraca contain from 2 to 9 verses each, and cover Matthew 27:31,Matthew 27:32; Mark 5:40,Mark 5:41 (9:3); 9:17,18,22; 15:21; Luke 12:13–16; Luke 22:40–71; John 1:1–9; John 1:14–17; John 18:19–25; John 19:15–17. The texts are in 3 different hands, and attest the interest of the poor in the gospel in the century of the Arab conquest. Another late ostracon has a rough drawing labeled "St. Peter the evangelist," perhaps in allusion to the Gospel of Peter.

4. Coptic Ostraca:

Coptic ostraca, too, are numerous, especially from the Byzantine period, and of even more interest for Christian history than the Greek. A Sa`idic ostracon preserves the pericope on the woman taken in adultery (John 7:53–8:11), which is otherwise unattested in the Sa`idic New Testament. A Christian hymn to Mary, akin to the canticles of Luke, and some Christian letters have been found. The work of W.E. Crum on the Coptic ostraca is of especial importance. See, further, Deissmann, Light from the Ancient East, 1910; Lyon, Harvard Theol. Review, January, 1911.

Edgar J. Goodspeed