Priests And Levites (continued) – Prison, Spirits In

Priests And Levites (continued)

David and Solomon recognized the hierarchy. The former king instituted the musical services (1 Chronicles 6:3 1 Chronicles 16:4 1 Chronicles 16:25). The Levites were divided into courses (1 Chronicles 23:6) and were rendered liable to service from the age of twenty by his enactment (1 Chronicles 23:27). There were also 24 courses or divisions of priests, 16 of the sons of Eleazar and 8 of the sons of Ithamar (1 Chronicles 23:24). The courses were divided by lot. In Nehemiah 12:1–7 we read of "chiefs of the priests," but these are only 22 in number, while 12:12-21 give us 21 in the time of Joiakim (12:26). But not much importance can be attached to such lists, as names could easily fall out in transmission. According to 1 Chronicles 9:26 the four chief porters were Levites, and Levites were also over the things baked in pans and the shewbread (9:31 f). This of course is not in accordance with the Law, but is found elsewhere in Chronicles. In 1 Chronicles 23:1–32 the Levites from 30 years old and upward number 38,000, of whom 24,000 oversee the work of the house of the Lord, 6,000 were officers and judges, 4,000 were doorkeepers and 4,000 were musicians. David altered the age of beginning service to 20, and an account of their functions is given in 1 Chronicles 23:27–32 (see, further, MUSIC). All these arrangements were confirmed and enforced by Solomon (2 Chronicles 8:14). There is often uncertainty as to whether the Chronicler identifies priests and Levites in particular cases or not, e.g. in 2 Chronicles 30:27, "the priests the Levites" bless the people according to the ordinary text, but many authorities read "the priests and the Levites." Hezekiah appears to have undertaken some reorganization (2 Chronicles 29:1–36, 2 Chronicles 30:1–27, 2 Chronicles 31:1–21), but the details are not clear. Jehoshaphat established in Jerusalem a court composed partly of Levites and priests (19:8-11). Previously he had sent priests and Levites and others to teach the Law in Judah (2 Chronicles 17:1–19). In 2 Chronicles 29:34 it is clearly the duty of the priests to flay burnt offerings (contrast Le 1). It is impossible to draw any consistent picture from the Chronicler because he gives different data for different periods; it is doubtful whether he meant his statements to be taken as historical, e.g. in 1 Chronicles 25:1–31 we find Levites whose names Giddalti (= "I have magnified"), etc., are really words forming part of a prayer, and it is difficult to believe that either the Chronicler or his public intended this chapter to be interpreted in any but a spiritual sense (see PS, 284-86).

In Ezra 2:40 the number of Levites who returned with Zerubbabel is given as 74, as against 973 priests (2:36), 128 singers (2:41), 139 children of the porters (2:42), 392 Nethinim and children of Solomon's servants (2:58), and the figures are the same in Nehemiah 7:1–73, except that there the singers number 148 (7:44) and the porters 138 (7:45). When Ezra went up, he was at first joined by no Levites (8:15), but subsequently gathered 38 Levites and 220 Nethinim (8:18-20). We get glimpses of the organization in Nehemiah 12:44–47 and 13:10 ff. It appears that in this period genealogies were carefully scrutinized in the case of doubtful claims to priestly descent (Ezra 2:61 Nehemiah 7:63). In Ezra 6:19 ff the Levites are represented as killing the Passover.

Of these books no satisfactory account can be given in the present state of textual criticism and Biblical science generally. Some writers, e.g., hold that the Chronicler had before him a source to which the Levites were entirely unknown, others that he invented freely, others again that he reproduces trustworthy pre-exilic information. The student has only an assortment of theories from which to choose. The bedrock fact is that the statements of these books, if taken in their natural meaning, convey an entirely different impression from the statements of the earlier books construed similarly. Modern research has not yet been seriously addressed to the question whether all the statements were really intended to be interpreted as mere history.

VI. Legal Provisions.

Aaron and his sons underwent consecration to fit them for their duties. Exodus 28:1–43 f prescribes their garments and consecration (see DRESS; BREASTPLATE; EPHOD; ROBE; COAT; MITRE; GIRDLE; URIM AND THUMMIM), and the account of the latter may be read in Leviticus 8:1–36 f. In individual sacrifices brought to the religious capital the priests performed the part of the ritual which related to the altar (sprinkling, burning, etc.) (Leviticus 1:1–4:35). See SACRIFICE. A principal function was the duty of teaching the people the law of God (Leviticus 10:11; Leviticus 14:54–57; Deuteronomy 24:8; Deuteronomy 33:10; compare Ezekiel 44:23; Hosea 4:1–6; Haggai 2:11 ff, and many passages in the Prophets).

The priests were subject to special laws designed to maintain their purity (Leviticus 21:1–24$ f; compare Ezekiel 44:1–31). The rules aim at preventing defilement through mourning (save in the case of ordinary priests for a near relation) and at preventing those who were physically unfitted from performing certain functions, and those who were for any reason unclean from approaching the holy things. See further STRANGER AND SOJOURNER. They performed several semi-judicial functions (Numbers 5:5 ff,11 ff, etc.; see JUDGE). They also blessed the people (Numbers 6:22; compare Deuteronomy 10:8, etc.).

See BLESSING. On their dues see SACRIFICE; TITHE; FIRSTLING; FIRST-FRUITS; LEVITICAL CITIES; AGRARIAN LAWS; see further CHEMARIM; NETHINIM; SOLOMON'S SERVANTS; SINGERS; DOORKEEPER; SERVING-WOMEN; JUDGE.

LITERATURE.

Wellhausen, Prolegomena, chapter iv, for the Graf-Wellhausen view; Wiener, Wiener, Pentateuchal Studies, 230-89, for the view taken above; S.I. Curtiss, Levitical Priests, for the conservative view. This writer afterward changed to the critical view. James Orr, POT; A. Van Hoonacker, Le sacerdoce levitique (important); W. Baudissin, article "Priests and Levites" in HDB, IV, for mediating views. The best account in English of the details of the priestly duties is contained in Baudissin's article, where a further bibliography will be found.

Harold M. Wiener

Primogeniture

1. Recognition of Doctrine:

The right of the firstborn to inherit the headship of the family, carrying with it certain property rights and usually such titles as those of the high-priesthood or kingship. The writings of the Hebrews take for granted the recognition of a doctrine of primogeniture from the earliest times. In the most ancient genealogies a distinction is drawn between the firstborn and the other son (Genesis 10:15; Genesis 22:21; Genesis 25:13; Genesis 35:23; Genesis 36:15). In the bestowal of parental blessings in patriarchal times great importance was attached to preferring the firstborn (Genesis 25:31; Genesis 27:29; Genesis 48:13; Genesis 49:3). The feud between Jacob and Esau (Genesis 27:1–28:21) grew out of the stealing of the firstborn's blessing by the younger brother. Joseph was displeased when, in his blessing, Jacob seemed to prefer Ephraim to Manasseh, his firstborn (Genesis 48:18). The father in such cases seems to have had the right to transfer the birthright from one son to another, from the days of Abraham in the case of Ishmael and Isaac, through those of Jacob in the matter of Reuben and Joseph and in the matter of Ephraim and Manasseh, down to the days of David in the selection of a successor to the kingship. Nevertheless, the Mosaic code, which declared (rather than enacted) the law of primogeniture, prohibited the abuse of this parental privilege in the case of a younger son by a favorite wife (Deuteronomy 21:16 f).

2. The Double Portion:

The manner of acknowledging the firstborn incidentally referred to in De is "by giving him a double portion of all that he hath" (Deuteronomy 21:17), that is to say, double the share of each of the other brothers. Jewish tradition (Bekho. 46a, 47b, 51a, 51b; Babha' Bathra' 122a, 122b, 123a, 124a, 142b) accepts and elaborates on this right of the firstborn son. Thus, it applies only to the firstborn and not the eldest surviving son; it does not apply to daughters; it has reference only to the paternal estate, and not to the inheritance left by a mother or other relative, nor to improvements or accessions made to an estate after the death of the father.

3. Reasons for the Custom:

The object of the doctrine may be that the eldest son might be enabled to preside over the affairs of family with proper dignity, or that he might assume additional responsibilities, such as the support of unmarried sisters. Hence, one's birthright could be waived or sold (Genesis 25:31,Genesis 25:34). On the other hand it may be based in the ultimate analysis on the primitive feeling of favoritism for the firstborn reflected in the disappointment of Jacob, when he speaks of Reuben as his firstborn, his might, and the beginning of his strength (re'shith 'on, Genesis 49:3; compare Deuteronomy 21:17). This theory would be in accord with the right of the parent to transfer the right to a younger son. The suggestion of favoritism conveyed by the Hebrew bekhor is manifested in its figurative use: of Israel (Exodus 4:22), of Ephraim (Jeremiah 31:9), of one dearly beloved (Zechariah 12:10); (compare figurative usage in the New Testament: Romans 8:29; Hebrews 12:23; Hebrews 1:6; Revelation 1:5).

4. The Firstborn in Ancient Society; Sacrifice and Redemption:

Light is thrown on the attitude of the ancient world toward the firstborn, and hence, on the history of primogeniture, by the language used in connection with the plague of the firstborn: "from the first-born of Pharaoh that sitteth upon his throne, even unto the first-born of the maidservant that is behind the mill" or "the captive that was in the dungeon." Apparently no more dreadful catastrophe for all classes of society could be thought of than this slaying of the firstborn (Exodus 11:5; Exodus 12:29). The misguided fervor of the ancient Semites who offered their firstborn as the thing most dearly beloved as a sacrifice to their gods must be considered in this light, whether it appears among the Moabites, the Phoenicians or the Hebrews themselves (Jeremiah 32:35; Ezekiel 20:26,Ezekiel 20:31; 2 Chronicles 28:3). It is difficult to predicate a connection between the basis of the doctrine of primogeniture and that of the Redemption of the First-born, other than that both are ultimately based on the importance of a firstborn son and the fondness of his parents for him. It is interesting to note, however, that the tradition of redemption and the law of primogeniture are kept so distinct that, while the latter has reference only to the firstborn of a father, the former has reference only to the firstborn of a mother (Bekho, viii. l, 46a; compare peTer rechem, "whatsoever openeth the womb," Exodus 13:2). In a polygamous society such as that presupposed in Deuteronomy 21:1–23 it is natural to suppose that the distinction between paternal and maternal primogeniture would be clearly before the minds of the people.

See BIRTHRIGHT; FIRSTBORN.

Nathan Isaacs

Prince

prins: This word occurs quite frequently in our English Bible, mostly in the Old Testament. While it is never used to denote royal parentage (compare 1 Chronicles 29:24), it often indicates actual royal or ruling power, together with royal dignity and authority. As a rule, the name is given to human beings; in a few instances it is applied to God and Christ, the angels and the devil.

In Matthew 2:6 the word rendered "princes" might be translated "princely cities"; at least, this seems to be implied. Here the term hegemon, "leader," "ruler," "prince," is used, undoubtedly to hint at the fact that Bethlehem was the native city of a great prince. In the other New Testament passages the word archon, "a potentate," "a person in authority," "a magistrate," occurs most frequently (compare Matthew 9:34; Matthew 12:24; Matthew 20:25 (the Revised Version (British and American) "ruler"); Mark 3:22; John 12:31; John 14:30; John 16:11; 1 Corinthians 2:6,1 Corinthians 2:8 the King James Version; Ephesians 2:2; Revelation 1:5 (the Revised Version (British and American) "ruler")). In most of these instances the term "prince" refers to the devil.

In Acts 3:15; Acts 5:31, the word archegos, "leader," is employed referring to Christ as the author of life and salvation (compare Hebrews 12:2, where the term archegos is rendered "author" (Revised Version) or "captain" (Revised Version margin)).

The Old Testament contains a number of different words mostly rendered "prince" or "princes" in the English Versions of the Bible.

(1) sar: In Joshua 5:14 the mysterious armed stranger seen by Joshua near Jericho calls himself the "prince of the host of Yahweh": a high military title applied to a superhuman being. In Isaiah 9:6, the name is given to the child representing the future Messiah. The term "Prince of Peace" denotes the eminent position and the peaceful reign of the Messianic king: the highest human title in its most ideal sense. Daniel 8:11: here, again, as in Joshua 5:14, occurs the phrase "prince of the host." In Daniel 8:25 "the prince of princes" refers to God Himself: the highest human title in its absolute sense applied to God. Daniel 10:21: "Michael your prince." Michael the archangel is here called the prince of the Jewish people. He is the princely representative of God's people in the sight of God, a royal title suggesting high power and alliance with God in the great struggle going on between Him and the powers of darkness. Daniel 12:1: here Michael is called "the great prince" who standeth for the children of Israel; supplementing Daniel 10:21. In Daniel 10:13: "the prince of the kingdom of Persia" (compare 10:20, "the prince of Persia," "the prince of Greece"), the expression is used in the same general sense as in Daniel 10:21. Each individual nation is represented as guided by a spiritual being that may or may not be an ally of God in His combat with the devil. In the majority of cases, though, the term sar is applied

(a) to men exercising royal or ruling power: Proverbs 8:16: "By me princes (margin "or rulers") rule" Isaiah 32:1: "Behold, a king shall reign in righteousness, and princes shall rule in justice." Judicial power is included (compare Exodus 2:14: "Who made thee a prince and a judge over us?" and Psalms 148:11: "princes and all judges of the earth"). In some passages the word sar, having been rendered "prince," stands for "chief"; so Judges 7:25: "They took the two princes of Midian" (compare Judges 8:14; 1 Samuel 29:4; 2 Samuel 10:3, etc.).

(b) To royal officers of a high rank: Genesis 12:15: "the princes of Pharaoh" (compare 2 Kings 24:14: "Jerus and all the princes"; 1 Chronicles 29:24; 2 Chronicles 24:23; Jeremiah 36:21; Jeremiah 52:10; Hosea 5:10, etc.). "Ambassadors" (Jeremiah 36:14); "governors" (1 Kings 20:14 "By the young men (margin "or, servants") of the princes of the provinces"; compare Esther 1:3,Esther 1:14, "the seven princes"); "the chief of the eunuchs" (Daniel 1:7); a "quartermaster" (Jeremiah 51:59 "Seraiah was chief chamberlain" (margin "or, quartermaster")). The King James Version renders it "a quiet prince," i.e. a prince having rest, instead of procuring rest (sar menuchah, "a sar of rest"). In post-exilic times: Ezra 9:1: "The princes drew near unto me." They were the political leaders of the people (compare Ezra 10:8: "the princes and the elders"; Nehemiah 9:38: "our princes, our Levites, and our priests"; Nehemiah 11:1: "The princes of the people dwelt in Jerus"; Nehemiah 12:31: "the princes of Judah"). Of course, they were all subject to the authority of the Persian kings.

(c) To the priesthood: 1 Chronicles 24:5: "princes of the sanctuary, and princes of God" (of Isaiah 43:28).

(d) On account of great achievements: 2 Samuel 3:38: "Know ye not that there is a prince and a great man fallen this day in Israel?"--an honorary title. Generally speaking, a prince is a wealthy man (compare Job 34:19: "That respecteth not the persons of princes, nor regardeth the rich more than the poor"), and he is a prominent man embodying true, although mortal, manhood (compare Psalms 82:7: "Nevertheless ye shall die like men, and fall like one of the princes).

(2) nasi': usually derived from nasa', "to lift," hence, "exalted"; otherwise: a "speaker."

(a) An honorary title (compare Genesis 23:6: "Thou art a prince of God among us." The distinction is conferred upon Abraham by the children of Heth).

(b) A name given to the heads of the Israelite tribes, families and fathers' houses: Numbers 3:24: "the prince of the fathers' house of the Gershonites" (compare 3:30,35); 3:32: "Eleazar .... shall be prince of the princes of the Levites, and have the oversight of them that keep the charge of the sanctuary"; Numbers 4:34: "the princes of the congregation." They seem to be identical with the "rulers of thousands, rulers of hundreds, rulers of fifties, and rulers of tens" (compare Exodus 18:21; Numbers 16:2). Numbers 7:2: "the princes of Israel, the heads of their fathers' houses .... the princes of the tribes" (compare 17:2,6; 34:18; Joshua 22:14; 1 Chronicles 4:38).

(c) Equivalent to chief or king: Genesis 17:20: "Twelve princes shall he beget" (compare 25:16); Genesis 34:2: "Shechem the son of Hamor the Hivite, the prince of the land"; Numbers 25:18: "Cozbi, the daughter of the prince of Midian" (compare Joshua 13:21); 1 Kings 11:34: "I will make him prince all the days of his life." This was said of Solomon, which shows the term equivalent to king. Of special interest is the use of the word nasi' in Ezekiel. The name is given to the Jewish king (compare 12:10: "This burden concerneth the prince in Jerusalem"). Then, again, it is applied to the future theocratic king (compare 34:24; 37:25, etc., and especially chapters 45; 46). It is also used of foreign potentates and high officers (compare 26:16: "the princes of the sea"; 28:2: "the prince of Tyre"; 30:13: "a prince from the land of Egypt"); 32:29: "Edom, her kings and all her princes"; and, likewise, of high Jewish officers (21:12).

(d) A title bestowed upon Sheshbazzar (Ezra 1:8).

(3) nadhibh: 1 Samuel 2:8: "To make them sit with princes" (compare Psalms 113:8). The original meaning of the term is willing or obliging; then generous ("liberal"; compare Proverbs 19:6: "Many will entreat the favor of the liberal man"; yet, it might safely be rendered here "prince", margin) or noble-minded; a gentleman, a nobleman, a person of rank, a prince. Job 12:21: "He poureth contempt upon princes" (compare Psalms 107:40); Job 21:28: "Where is the house of the prince? And where is the tent wherein the wicked dwelt?" The context here suggests the thought of a wicked prince, a tyrant. Psalms 47:9: "The princes of the peoples are gathered together" (compare Psalms 118:9; Psalms 146:3; Proverbs 17:7; Proverbs 25:7; Song of Songs 7:1).

(4) naghidh: According to Gesenius, this term denotes originally either a high-minded person (compare the preceding word, nadhibh) or a speaker, a spokesman; then a prince, a king. 1 Samuel 13:14: "Yahweh hath appointed him to be prince over his people" (compare 2 Samuel 5:2: "Thou shalt be prince (the Revised Version margin "leader") over Israel"; 6:21; 7:8; 1 Kings 1:35; 1 Kings 14:7; 1 Kings 16:2; Job 29:9; Job 31:37; Psalms 76:12; Proverbs 28:16; Ezekiel 28:2: "prince of Tyre"; Daniel 9:25: "the anointed one, the prince," the King James Version the "Messiah the Prince"; Daniel 9:26: "the prince that shall come" (the Roman emperor?); 11:22: "the prince of the covenant" (either a high priest or some Egyptian king, Ptolemeus Philometor?).

(5), (6) razon, and rozen, "a high official," "a prince," usually associated with the word "king" or "judge." Proverbs 14:28: "In the multitude of people is the king's glory; but in the want of people is the destruction of the prince" (razon); Judges 5:3: "Hear, O ye kings; give ear, O ye princes" (rozenim); Proverbs 8:15: "By me kings reign, and princes (rozenim) decree justice" (compare 31:4; Habakkuk 1:10); Isaiah 40:23: "that bringeth princes (rozenim) to nothing; that maketh the judges of the earth as vanity."

(7) nacikh, derived from nacakh, "to install a king" (compare Psalms 2:6); hence, a prince: Joshua 13:21: "the princes of Sihon" (compare Psalms 83:11); Ezekiel 32:30: "the princes of the north"; Micah 5:5: the Revised Version (British and American) "principal men," the Revised Version margin "princes among men"; Daniel 11:8: the Revised Version (British and American) "molten images," the Revised Version margin "princes."

(8) qatsin, "a judge," "a military leader," "a prince"; Daniel 11:18: "A prince (the Revised Version margin "captain") shall cause the reproach .... to cease" (probably a Roman consul; a Roman general?).

(9) shalish: The usual explanation, "one of the three men on a war-chariot" is highly improbable; Gesenius suggests that it is a loan-word, and renders it "hero." Ezekiel 23:15: "All of them princes to look upon" ("picked men," Gesenius).

(10) chashmannim: Psalms 68:31: "Princes shall come out of Egypt." Septuagint renders it presbeis, "ambassadors," Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) legati. But the meaning is uncertain.

See also GOVERNOR, 1, (8).

William Baur

Princes, The Seven

prin'-sez, -siz.

See PRINCE, (1), (b).

Princess

prin'-ses: The Hebrew term is sarah (compare sar, prince, and "Sarah"); it means

(1) a queen (Isaiah 49:23, the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) both "queen");

(2) the consort of a king contrasted with his concubines (1 Kings 11:3, "He had seven hundred wives. princesses, and three hundred concubines");

(3) the wife of a prince (Esther 1:18 the "princesses of Persia and Media");

(4) it is metaphorically used of the city of Jerusalem (Lamentations 1:1).

Principal

prin'-si-pal: Appears in the King James Version as a translation of nine Hebrew words (fewer in the Revised Version (British and American)), in one case (Isaiah 28:25) being used quite wrongly and in 2 Kings 25:19 (Jeremiah 52:25); 1 Chronicles 24:31 gives a wrong sense (all corrected in the Revised Version (British and American)). In 1 Kings 4:5, "principal officer" (the American Standard Revised Version "chief minister") is an arbitrary translation of kohen to avoid "priest" (so the English Revised Version; compare 2 Samuel 8:18).

Principality

prin-si-pal'-i-ti: In the Old Testament the word occurs but once (Jeremiah 13:18, "your principalities shall come down"). Here the King James Version margin "head tires" is properly preferred by the Revised Version (British and American) for mera'ashoth (from ro'sh, "head"), "head-parts."

In the New Testament "principality" occurs for arche, "rule," generally in the plural, referring

(a) to men in authority (Titus 3:1, "Put them in mind to be subject (the King James Version; "in subjection," the Revised Version (British and American)) to principalities (the King James Version; "rulers," the Revised Version (British and American)), and powers" (the King James Version; "to authorities," the Revised Version (British and American));

(b) to superhuman agencies, angelic or demonic (Romans 8:38; Ephesians 3:10; Ephesians 6:12; Colossians 1:16; Colossians 2:10,Colossians 2:15). Paul was keenly sensible of the dualism of mind and body and of the law in his members warring against the law of his mind (Romans 7:23), and of the temporary victory of the evil, residing in the flesh, over the good of the spirit (Romans 7:14).

This dualism was objectified in Zoroastrianism, and among the Babylonians the several heavenly bodies were regarded as ruled by spirits, some good, some evil. The same belief, appropriated by the Jews during the captivity, appears also in Greek thought, as e.g. in Plato and later in the Stoics. The higher spheres, which hold the even tenor of their way, were in general regarded as ruled by good spirits; but in the sublunar sphere, to which the earth belongs, ill-regulated motions prevail, which must be due to evil spirits. The perversities of human conduct, in particular, thwarting, as was thought, the simple, intelligible divine plan, were held to be subject to rebellious powers offering defiance to God. While Paul clearly recognized a hierarchy of such powers (Colossians 1:16, "thrones or dominions or principalities or powers"), it is not certain that he had elaborated a system of eons to serve the purposes of metaphysical theology and ethics, such as appears among the Gnostics, although they evidently believed they were developing his thought. In 1 Corinthians 2:6 he repudiates the wisdom of this world (aion) and of the rulers of this world aion), and declares (Ephesians 6:12) that the Christian has to contend with "the world-rulers of this darkness," and proclaims the triumph of Christ over "the principalities and the powers" in the forgiveness of sins (Colossians 2:15). The same personification of such agencies or powers appears also in another passage, where the rendering of English Versions of the Bible obscures it (Ephesians 1:20,Ephesians 1:21 "when he raised him (Christ) from the dead, and made him to sit at his right hand in the heavenly places, far above all (read "every") rule (Revised Version; "principality," the King James Version), and authority, and power, and dominion, and every name that is named not only in this world (aion), but also in that which is to come"). Not the least interesting passage is Ephesians 3:10, where the church is said to be the means of revealing to "the principalities and the powers in the heavenly places" "the manifold wisdom of God." One naturally inquires what was the purpose of this revelation. Was it to effect a redemption and reconciliation of these demonic powers to God? To this question Paul supplies no answer.

See ANGEL; SATAN.

William Arthur Heidel

Principles

prin'-si-p'-lz: Found twice (Hebrews 5:12; Hebrews 6:1). The Greek word (stoicheion) is also translated in the King James Version as "elements" and "rudiments." As rendered in He, its meaning is clearly related to the elementary knowledge of Christian truth or doctrine.

See ELEMENTS; RUDIMENTS.

Print; Printing; Printed

print, prin'-ting, prin'-ted: Printing is the art of multiplying records--the "art of writing with many pens" (Jewish Encyclopedia, XII, 295), or wholesale writing.

The art of making original records is writing. This, however, is a slow process. It involves tracing each letter and part of a letter through from beginning to end by the moving point of chisel, pen, or other instrument, and this process must be repeated with every copy. As soon, therefore, as occasion arose for frequently repeating the record, many ways were devised to save the labor of forming each symbol separately. All these ways involve making a character or a series of characters on a single surface and transferring as a whole to another surface. Neither "pressure," as some say, nor "ink," as others, is essential to the process, for printing from a photographic negative takes no pressure, and printing for the blind takes no ink. Any process which transfers a whole surface is printing.

The earliest use of printing seems to have been for painting the face or body with ownership, tribal, trophy, or ceremonial marks for worship, war, mourning, etc. This paint might be temporary or pricked in by the tattoo process. Tattooing itself is rather a writing than a printing process, but may be either, according as the color is laid on by drawing or by the "pintadera." The "pintadera" or "stamp used to impress patterns upon the skin" is best known from the Mexican and South American examples, but in recent years it has been found in deposits all over the Mediterranean region (North Italy, Austria, Hungary, Mycenae, Crete, Egypt) and in Borneo at least. Many of these specimens are from the Neolithic or Copper age. Both in South America and in Neolithic Liguria, some of these stamps were cylindrical and "were used like a printer's roller" (Mosso, The Dawn of Mediterranean Civilization, 254-61, with many illustrations, and Frobenius, Childhood of Man, figure 31, "Dayak block for painting the body").

The injunction of Leviticus 19:28, which is translated "print," is commonly, and probably rightly, in view of the Hebrew word, supposed to refer to the permanent marks of tattooing which may or may not have been made by this printing process. Job 13:27 the King James Version, which speaks of printing upon the heels or soles of the feet, has been quite changed in the Revised Version (British and American), and, if the idea is one of printing at all, it refers rather to branding than stamping with color.

The use of the inkhorn in setting the mark upon the forehead (Ezekiel 9:3,Ezekiel 9:4,Ezekiel 9:6) certainly points to marking with color rather than branding. See INK-HORN. This may, of course, have been drawing rather than printing, but, on the other hand, the sealing of the servants of God on their foreheads (Revelation 7:4; Revelation 9:4) necessarily means printing rather than drawing, and probably printing rather than branding, for the use of the seal with color had long been common. The marks of the beast upon the forehead and upon the hand in Revelation 13:1–18; Revelation 14:1–20; Revelation 15:1–8; Revelation 16:1–21; Revelation 19:1–21; Revelation 20:1–15, more likely refer to branding, as the Greek word points more or less in this direction, while the stigmata of Galatians 6:17 may also point to branding. Branding was at all events also a common method of printing characters on the flesh in Biblical times (Isaiah 3:24; perhaps Exodus 21:25; a branding on the forehead, Code of Hammurabi section 127; branding of a slave sections 226, 227). The reference in John 20:25 is, of course, to the clearly visible marks or scars left by the nails in the hands.

See MARK.

The use of seals is a true printing process, whether they are used with color, as they were both in Crete and Egypt almost from the beginning of history, or impressed on clay, wax, or other plastic substances. Mention of seals is frequent in the Bible (see SEAL). A new interest has been given to this aspect of the matter by the sealings discovered in Ahab's palace and other excavations throughout Palestine, which are forming one of the most useful classes of modern inscriptions.

Both stamp and seal were used throughout the Middle Ages, the latter abundantly, and the stamp at least occasionally, for stamping the capital letters in Biblical and other manuscripts, as well as for various other purposes.

Modern printing begins with the carving of whole pages and books on blocks of wood (xylography), or metal plates for printing (chalcography). This method was quite early practiced by the Chinese, and began to be common in Europe in the early 15th century, most of the books printed by it having to do with Biblical topics (Biblia pauperum, etc.).

It was only with the invention of movable type about the middle of the 15th century that the multiplying of books by writing began to come to an end. The printing with movable type is also closely associated with Biblical study, the Gutenberg Psalter and the Gutenberg Bible standing with most for the very beginning of modern printing.

For the printed editions of the Hebrew and Greek originals, and the various versions, see articles on TEXTUAL CRITICISM and allied topics in this encyclopedia, with their literature. The article on "Typography" in Jewish Encyclopedia is of unusual excellence, and the general literature of printing given in Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition), at the end of the first part of the article on "Typography," is full and good. Compare also Book in this encyclopedia and its literature, especially Hortzschansky, supplementing the bibliography of Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition). E. C. Richardson

Prisca; Priscilla

pris'-ka, pri-sil'-a.

See AQUILA.

Prison Garments

See preceding article.

Prison, Spirits In

The phrase occurs in the much-disputed passage, 1 Peter 3:18–20, where the apostle, exhorting Christians to endurance under suffering for well-doing, says: "Because Christ also suffered for sins once, the righteous for the unrighteous, that he might bring us to God; being put to death in the flesh, but made alive in the spirit; in which also he went and preached unto the spirits in prison, that aforetime were disobedient, when the longsuffering of God waited in the days of Noah, while the ark was a preparing, wherein few, that is, eight souls, were saved through water." It is plain that in this context "the spirits in prison" (tois en phulake pneumasin) denote the generation who were disobedient in the days of Noah, while the words "spirits" and "in prison" refer to their present disembodied condition in a place of judgment in the unseen world (compare 2 Peter 2:4–9). The crucial point in the passage lies in what is said of Christ's preaching to these spirits in prison. The interpretation which strikes one most naturally is that Christ, put to death in the flesh, and made alive again in the spirit, went in this spiritual (disembodied) state, and preached to these spirits, who once had been disobedient, but are viewed as now possibly receptive of His message This is the idea of the passage taken by the majority of modern exegetes, and it finds support in what is said in 1 Peter 4:6, "For unto this end was the gospel preached even to the dead, that they might be judged indeed according to men in the flesh, but live according to God in the spirit." On this basis is now often reared a mass of doctrine or conjecture respecting "second probation," "restoration," etc.--in part going back to patristic times--for which the passage, even so taken, affords a very narrow foundation (see on this view, Plumptre, The Spirits in Prison; Dorner, System of Christian Doctrine, IV, 130-32; E. White, Life in Christ, chapter xxii). It must be admitted, however, that, on closer examination, the above plausible explanation is compassed with many difficulties. A preaching of Christ in Hades is referred to in no other passage of Scripture, while Peter appears to be speaking to his readers of something with which they are familiar; it seems strange that these antediluvians should be singled out as the sole objects of this preaching in the spiritual world; the word "made alive" does not exegetically refer to a disembodied state, but to the resurrection of Christ in the body, etc. Another line of interpretation is therefore preferred by many, who take the words "in which also he went," to refer, not to a disembodied manifestation, but to the historical preaching to the antediluvian generation through Noah while they yet lived. In favor of this view is the fact that the apostle in 1 Peter 1:11 regards the earlier prophetic preaching as a testifying of "the Spirit of Christ," that God's long-suffering with Noah's generation is described in Genesis 6:5, which Peter has doubtless in his mind, as a striving of God's Spirit, and that in 2 Peter 2:5 there is another allusion to these events, and Noah is described as "a preacher of righteousness." The passage, 1 Peter 4:6, may have the more general meaning that Christians who have died are at no disadvantage in the judgment as compared with those who shall be alive at the Parousia (compare 1 Thessalonians 4:15–18). (For an exposition of this view, with a full account of the interpretations and literature on the subject, compare Salmond's Christian Doctrine of Immortality, 4th edition, 364-87.)

See also ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

James Orr