Prison; Prisoner – Prophecy, Gift Of

Prison; Prisoner

priz'-n, priz'-'-n-er, priz'-ner (there are various Hebrew words which are rendered "prison" in the King James Version, among them:

1. Hebrew Words:

(1) cohar, "round house," "fortress" (8 times in Genesis), (2) kele' "restraint," "confinement" (12 times: in historic books, Isaiah, Jeremiah, with "house"), (3) maTTarah, "guard," "sentry" (13 times in Jeremiah and Nehemiah), (4) mahaphekheth, "distorting," i.e. stocks or pillory (4 times), (5) 'ecur, "bond," "fetters" (Ecclesiastes 4:14; Jeremiah 37:15); "ward" in the King James Version is usually the rendering for mishmar):

2. In Early Times:

The earliest occurrence of the word "prison" in the King James Version is found in the narrative of Joseph's life in Egypt (the Jahwist). The term used, namely, cohar, means perhaps "round house" or "tower." It seems probable that among the Hebrews there were no special buildings erected as "jails" in the premonarchical period, and perhaps not before the post-exilic period, when the adoption of the civic institutions and customs of surrounding nations prevailed. In Egypt and Assyria, on the contrary, there were probably public buildings corresponding to our modern jails. Among the Hebrews, rooms in connection with the royal palace or the residence of prominent court officials would be used for the purpose.

3. Joseph in Egypt:

According to one narrative (Jahwist) in Genesis the prison in which Joseph was confined had a "keeper," while according to another narrative (the Elohist) the offending members of the royal household, namely, the royal butler and the royal baker, were placed "in ward" with the "captain of the guard" in charge, i.e. in some part of the royal palace. This is still more probable if, instead of "captain of the guard," we should translate "chief of the cooks" i.e. superintendent of the royal kitchen.

4. Causes of Imprisonment:

It was often necessary to restrict the liberty of individuals who for various causes were a menace to those in authority, without inflicting any corporal punishment, e.g. Joseph's brethren were kept "in ward" three days (Genesis 42:19); Shimei was forbidden to pass beyond the boundary of Jerusalem (1 Kings 2:36); the person who was caught gathering sticks on the Sabbath was put "in ward" pending his trial (Numbers 15:34). In the monarchical period, prophets who criticized the throne were put in prison, e.g. Micaiah by Ahab (1 Kings 22:27), Hanani by Asa (2 Chronicles 16:10). Hoshea, after his abortive effort to institute an alliance with So or Seve, king of Egypt, was shut up in prison by Shalmaneser (2 Kings 17:4); compare also 2 Kings 25:27 (Jehoiachin in Babylon); Jeremiah 52:11 (Zedekiah in Babylon).

5. Under the Monarchy:

The Book of Jeremiah throws considerable light on the prison system of Jerusalem in the later monarchical period. The prophet was put "in the stocks that were in the upper gate of Benjamin, which was in the house of Yahweh" (20:2). Mere imprisonment was not adequate punishment for the prophet's announcement of Judah's doom; it was necessary to have recourse to the pillory. During the siege of Jerusalem Jeremiah was confined in the "court of the guard, which was in the king of Judah's house" (32:2, etc.). The "court of the guard" was evidently the quarters of the sentry who guarded the royal palace. According to the narrative of Jeremiah 37, the prophet was arrested on a charge of treachery and put in prison "in the house of Jonathan the scribe" (37:15). This verse does not necessarily mean that a private house was used as a prison. The words are capable of another interpretation, namely, that a building known as the "house of Jonathan the scribe" had been taken over by the authorities and converted into a jail. We read in the following verse that the house had a "dungeon" (literally, "house of the pit") and "cabins" or "cells."

6. The Treatment of Prisoners:

The data are not sufficient to enable us to give any detailed description of the treatment of prisoners. This treatment varied according to the character of the offense which led to incarceration. Samson during the period of his imprisonment was compelled to do hard labor (Judges 16:21). Grinding was the occupation of women, and marked the depth of Samson's humiliation. Dangerous persons were subjected to various kinds of physical mutilation, e.g. Samson was deprived of his sight. This was a common practice in Assyria (2 Kings 25:7). The thumbs and great toes of Adonibezek were cut off to render him incapable of further resistance (Judges 1:6).

Various forms of torture were in vogue. Hanani the seer was put into the pillory by Asa (for "in a prison house" we should render "in the stocks"; see the Revised Version margin). In Jeremiah 29:26 for "prison," we should render "stocks" (so the Revised Version (British and American)) or "pillory," and for "stocks," "collar" (as in the Revised Version margin). the King James Version renders a different Hebrew word by "stocks" in Job (13:27; 33:11). There was a special prison diet (1 Kings 22:27), as well as a prison garb (2 Kings 25:29).

7. Other Hebrew Words:

There are other Hebrew words rendered "prison" (sometimes incorrectly) in the King James Version. In Psalms 142:7, the word which is translated "prison" means a "place of execution," and is derived from a root which denotes, for instance, the isolation of the leper (Leviticus 13:5; compare $Isa 24:22; 42:7). In Isaiah 53:8 "oppression" not "prison" is the correct translation while in Isaiah 61:1 the Hebrew denotes "opening of the eyes," rather than "opening of the prison." Prisoners are promised "light after darkness, gleam after gloom."

8. In the New Testament:

In the New Testament "prison" generally occurs for the Greek word phulake, which corresponds to the Hebrew word mishmar, referred to above (Matthew 5:25; Mark 6:17; Luke 3:20; Acts 5:19; 1 Peter 3:19). In Revelation 18:2, the King James Version renders this word by two different words, namely, "hold" and "cage"; the Revised Version (British and American) employs "hold" in each case (the Revised Version margin "prison"). In one passage "ward" is the rendering in the King James Version (Acts 12:10). In connection with the imprisonment of John the term used is desmoterion, "place of bonds" or "fetters" (Matthew 11:2); the same word is used in the case of Peter and John (Acts 5:21,Acts 5:23), and of Paul and Silas (Acts 16:26). But the more common term is also found in these narratives. In Acts 12:17 "prison" renders a Greek word which means "dwelling." In Acts 5:18 the King James Version, "prison" is the rendering for another Greek word, namely, teresis, "watching" or "ward" (the Revised Version (British and American) "ward"). In Acts 4:3, the King James Version employs "hold" as the rendering for the same word. This would correspond to the modern "police station" or "lockup."

See also PUNISHMENTS.

T. Lewis

Privy; Privily

priv'-i, priv'-i-li: These words are obsolete in modern English and are replaced by "secret," "secretly," rather than by the cognates "private," "privately." the Revised Version (British and American) usually has not altered the King James Version's use of the word, but in Psalms 11:2 has substituted "in darkness" and in Judges 9:31 uses "craftily," margin "in Tormah" (see TORMAH). In Ezekiel 21:14, the King James Version "entereth into their privy chambers," "privy" is a gloss, omitted in the Revised Version (British and American). "To be privy to a thing" (1 Kings 2:44; Acts 5:2) is simply "to know" it; in The Wisdom of Solomon 8:4, the Revised Version (British and American) has changed the phrase into "be initiated into."

Prize

priz: Two Greek words are so rendered in English Versions of the Bible:

(1) brabeion, the award to the victor in the Greek games, consisting of a garland of bay, olive, or pine; so called because it was given by the brabeus, the adjudicator who assigned the prize at the games (Vulgate bravium, from which may be derived the English "brave" = originally gaily dressed, handsome). Used literally in 1 Corinthians 9:24, and figuratively of the heavenly reward for Christian character in Philippians 3:14.

(2) harpagmos, in the English Revised Version of Philippians 2:6, "counted it not a prize to be on an equality with God." The termination -uos, -mos, would lead us to expect the active sense: "an act of grasping," "plundering" (the King James Version "robbery"), which would imply that Christ did not deem it an act of usurpation to claim equality with God, for such equality was His inherent right. But the context demands a reference "not to the right which He claimed, but to the dignity which He renounced" (Lightfoot); hence, the majority of modern expositors take the word in a passive sense (= harpagma): "a thing to be seized, prized, retained at all costs as a booty" (the English Revised Version "a prize," the American Standard Revised Version "a thing to be grasped"), implying that Christ did not regard equality with God as a thing to be clutched greedily, but waived His rights (see Lightfoot on Philippians 2:6). The verb "to prize" occurs only in Zechariah 11:13.

See GRASP; HUMILIATION OF CHRIST; KENOSIS.

D. Miall Edwards

Probation, Second

pro-ba'-shun, sek'-und.

See ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

Prochorus

prok'-o-rus (Prochoros) : One of "the seven" chosen by the Christian community in Jerusalem to superintend the dispensing of charity to the widows and other poor (Acts 6:5). The name is Greek, and he may have been a Hellenist. According to tradition he became bishop of Nicomedia and died a martyr at Antioch.

Proconsul

pro-kon'-sul (anthupatos (Acts 13:7; Acts 18:12); the King James Version deputy).

See PROVINCE.

Procurator

prok'-u-ra-ter (epitropos): This word signified in a general sense a steward or bailiff of a private estate, or a financial agent with power of attorney, and the development of the special usage of the word to denote an imperial functionary or official is characteristic of the origin of many departments of administration under the Roman Empire which sprang from the emperor's household. At the time of Augustus, when the domestic quality of these offices had not been entirely lost, the procurators were mostly imperial freedmen. But after the systematic organization of the administration in the 2nd century, the title of procurator was reserved for functionaries of the equestrian class. In fact, the term is so intimately connected with the sphere of official activity of the Roman knights that the expressions "procuratorial career" and "equestrian career" are used synonymously (compare Hirschfeld, Die kaiserlichen Verwaltungsbeamten bib auf Diocletian, 410-65).

During the last century of the Republic, the class of knights (equites) embraced in general all citizens of wealth who were not magistrates or members of the senate. The Roscian Law (67 BC) established 400,000 sesterces (about $18,000 (in 1915), or 3,600 British pounds (in 1915)) as the minimum census rating for membership in this class. The gold ring, tunic with narrow purple border, and privilege of sitting in the first 14 rows at theater were the tokens of knighthood. Augustus added to these the public horse which was conferred henceforth by the emperor and recalled the original military significance of the order. From the time of Augustus the first three decuriae of jurors (judices), each containing 1,000 persons, were filled with knights.

Under the Republic the influence of the equestrian class was chiefly exerted in the financial transactions of the companies which farmed the variable revenues. The importance of the publicani was greatly reduced under the Empire, but the emperors recompensed the knights for this loss of opportunity by entrusting them with a great variety of administrative functions. Military service as prefect or tribune was the preliminary step in the official equestrian career. The highest positions held by members of the equestrian class were called prefectures, and included the prefecture of the guard, of Egypt, of the grain-supply, of the watchmen in Rome, and of the fleet. But between these extremes the title procurator was applied generally to the functionaries whose positions were of imperial origin.

The administration of the fiscus or imperial treasury at Rome and of the finances in the imperial provinces, as well as the collection of fiscal revenues in the senatorial provinces, was in the hands of procurators. They occupied many positions which, on account of their intimate relationship with the person of the monarch, could be safely entrusted only to those whose limited prestige precluded inordinate ambition (Friedlaender, Sittengeschichte Roms 7th edition, Part I, 132-43). Finally, several provinces, where the conditions were unfavorable to the introduction of the ordinary administrative system and Roman public law, were governed as imperial domains by officials of the equestrian class as the emperor's representatives. In Egypt the title prefect (praefectus) was employed permanently as the appellation of the viceroy, and while the same term may have been used originally to denote the governors of this class generally, when their military outweighed their civil functions, yet the designation procurator became at an early date the term of common usage to designate them (Hirschfeld, 382).

Mauretania, Rhaetia, Noricum, Thrace, Cappadocia, Judea and some smaller districts were all, for a time at least, governed by procurators (Tacitus, History i.11; Dio Cassius lvii.17).

The question concerning the original title of the Roman governors of Judea has arisen because the New Testament employs the word hegemon (Matthew 27:2,Matthew 27:11,Matthew 27:14,Matthew 27:15,Matthew 27:21,Matthew 27:27; Matthew 28:14; Luke 3:1; Luke 20:20; Acts 23:24; Acts 24:1; Acts 26:30), which corresponds with the Latin term, praeses, which might be considered synonymous with either procurator or praefectus (Hirschfeld, 384). There is no inscriptional evidence to establish the nomenclature of the rulers of Palestine before the time of Vespasian, and Hirschfeld is of the opinion that a certain passage in Tacitus (Ann. xv.44) where Pilate is called procurator is not sufficient proof in view of this writer's carelessness in details of this sort. Josephus (Ant., XX, i, 2), however, employs epitropos (procurator) for the time of Claudius, and it is convenient to follow common usage and assume that this title was current from the first.

It was evidently the intention of Augustus that membership in the equestrian class should be a necessary qualification for the procurators who were appointed to govern provinces. But Claudius appointed a freedman, Antonius Felix, brother of the famous minister of finance, Pallas, as procurator of Judea (Suetonius, Claudius xxviii; Tacitus, History v.9). This remained, however, an isolated instance in the annals of Palestine (Hirschfeld, 380), and it is probable, moreover, that Felix was raised to equestrian rank before the governorship was conferred upon him.

The following list of the procurators of Judea is based on Marquardt (Romische Staatsverwaltung, I, 409, 412) and Schurer (Geschichte des judischen Volkes(4), I, 485-585):

Coponius (6 AD to circa 10 AD)

M. Ambibulus (circa 10-13)

Annius Rufus (circa 13-15)

Valerius Gratus (circa 15-26)

Pontius Pilatus (26-35)

Marcellus (probably 35-38)

Maryllus (38-44)

C. Cuspins Fadus (44-46)

Tiberius Alexander (46-48)

Ventidius Cumanus (48-52) M. Antonius Felix (52-60 or 61)

NOTE.--Marquardt gives his name as Claudius Felix, supposing that he was a freedman of Claudius and therefore took his nomen (Suetonius, Claudius xxviii; Victor, epitome iv, 8); but there is stronger evidence in support of the belief that Felix was a freedman of Antonia, Claudius' mother, like his brother Pallas (Tacitus, Annals xii.54; Josephus, Ant, XVII1, vi, 4; XX, vii, 1, 2; XX, viii, 9; BJ, II, xii, 8), and accordingly had received the praenomen and nomen of Antonia's father (Josephus, Ant, XVIII, vi, 6).

Portius Festus (61)

Albinus (62-64)

Gessius Florus (65-66)

See, further, GOVERNOR.

George H. Allen

Profane

pro-fan' (verb chalal, adjective chalal, chol; bebeloo, bebelos): From profanus, "before (i.e. outside) the temple," therefore unholy, polluted, secular, is of frequent occurrence (verb and adjective) in both the Old Testament and the New Testament. It occurs as the translation of chol in the King James Version only in Eze (22:26, the Revised Version (British and American) "common"; 42:20; 44:23; 48:15, the Revised Version (British and American) "for common use"); as the translation of chalal in Leviticus 21:7,Leviticus 21:14, the Revised Version margin "polluted"; and Ezekiel 21:25, where, for the King James Version "thou profane wicked prince of Israel," the Revised Version (British and American) has "thou, O deadly wounded wicked one, the prince of Israel." "To profane" (chalal) is seen in Leviticus 18:21; Leviticus 19:8; Nehemiah 13:17,Nehemiah 13:18; Psalms 89:39; Isaiah 43:28; Ezekiel 22:8,Ezekiel 22:26, etc. "Profaneness" in Jeremiah 23:15 (chanuppah) is in the American Standard Revised Version "ungodliness." In the New Testament "profane" occurs in the sense of unholy, godless, regardless of God and divine things (1 Timothy 1:9; 1 Timothy 4:7; 1 Timothy 6:20; 2 Timothy 2:16; Hebrews 12:16), and "to profane," or violate, in Matthew 12:5; Acts 24:6. The verb is frequent in Apocrypha in 1 Macc (1:43,45,63; 2:34, etc.; also in 2 Macc 8:2; 10:5; compare 2 Esdras 15:8; Judith 4:3,12; 1 Macc 1:48; 2 Macc 4:13). In numerous cases the Revised Version (British and American) substitutes "profane" for other words and phrases in the King James Version, as for "to prostitute" (Leviticus 19:29), "an hypocrite" (Isaiah 9:17), "pollute" (Numbers 18:32; Ezekiel 7:21), etc.

W. L. Walker

Profess; Profession

pro-fes', pro-fesh'-un (naghadh; homologeo, homologia): "Profess" means literally "to own before," hence, to make open or public announcement; it occurs only once in the Old Testament as the translation of naghadh, "to put before," often "to tell," "to show," "to declare" (Deuteronomy 26:3); in the New Testament it is the translation of homologeo, "to speak or say together in common," "to assent," "to confess publicly" (Matthew 7:23, "Then will I profess unto them, I never knew you"; 1 Timothy 6:12, the Revised Version (British and American) "didst confess the good confession"; Titus 1:16, "They profess that they know God"); of epaggellomai, "to announce one's self," "to make profession" (1 Timothy 2:10; 1 Timothy 6:21); of phasko, "to say," "to assert" (Romans 1:22). "Profession" is the translation of homologia (2 Corinthians 9:13; 1 Timothy 6:12; Hebrews 3:1, the King James Version "the High Priest of our profession" (of our professed faith); Hebrews 4:14; Hebrews 10:23; in each instance the Revised Version (British and American) has "confession"). "Profess" occurs in the King James Version of Ecclesiasticus 3:25, but the verse is omitted by the Revised Version (British and American); margin "Most authorities omit verse 25."

W. L. Walker

Prognosticators, Monthly

prog-nos'-ti-ka-terz.

See ASTROLOGY, 6.

Prologue

pro'-log, prol'-og (prologos, "foreword," "preface," "introduction"): The word occurs in the preface to Ecclesiasticus (Sirach), and is commonly applied to John 1:1–18.

See ECCLESIASTICUS; JOHN, GOSPEL OF.

Prolong

pro-long' ('arakh, mashakh): "Prolong," "prolonged" are the translations of 'arakh, "to stretch," "to make long" (Deuteronomy 4:26, and frequently, "prolong days"; Deuteronomy 4:40, etc.; Job 6:11 the King James Version; Proverbs 28:16; Ecclesiastes 7:15; Ecclesiastes 8:13; Isaiah 53:10); of mashakh, "to draw out" (Isaiah 13:22; Ezekiel 12:25,Ezekiel 12:28 the King James Version); of yacaph, "to add," "to increase" (Psalms 61:6; Proverbs 10:27); of naTah, "to stretch out," "to incline to" (Job 15:29, "neither shall he prolong the perfection thereof upon the earth," the American Standard Revised Version "neither shall their possessions be extended on the earth," margin "their produce bend to the earth"; the English Revised Version reverses text and margin); of 'arekhah (Aramaic) (Daniel 7:12, "Yet their lives were prolonged," the King James Version margin "A prolonging in life was given them"). "Prolong" occurs in Ecclesiasticus 29:5, "prolong the time" (parelkuo); 38:14, "prolong life," the Revised Version (British and American) "maintenance of life" (embiosis); 30:22, "prolongeth his days," the Revised Version (British and American) "length of days" (makroemereusis); 37:31, the Revised Version (British and American) "shall prolong" (prostithemi).

W. L. Walker

Promise

prom'-is (most frequently in the Old Testament dabhar, "speaking," "speech," and dabhar, "to speak" also 'amar, "to say," once in Psalms 77:8, 'omer, "speech"; in the New Testament epaggelia, and the verbs epaggellomai, and compounds): Promise holds an important place in the Scriptures and in the development of the religion that culminated in Christ. The Bible is indeed full of "precious and exceeding great promises" (2 Peter 1:4), although the word "promise" is not always used in connection with them. Of the more outstanding promises of the Old Testament may be mentioned:

(1) the proto-evangelium (Genesis 3:15);

(2) the promise to Noah no more to curse the ground, etc. (Genesis 8:21,Genesis 8:22; Genesis 9:1–17);

(3) most influential, the promise to Abraham to make of him a great nation in whom all families of the earth should be blessed, to give to him and his seed the land of Canaan (Genesis 12:2,Genesis 12:7, etc.), often referred to in the Old Testament (Exodus 12:25; Deuteronomy 1:8,Deuteronomy 1:11; Deuteronomy 6:3; Deuteronomy 9:28, etc.);

(4) the promise to David to continue his house on the throne (2 Samuel 7:12,2 Samuel 7:13,2 Samuel 7:18; 1 Kings 2:24, etc.);

(5) the promise of restoration of Israel, of the Messiah, of the new and everlasting kingdom, of the new covenant and outpouring of the Spirit (Isaiah 2:2–5; Isaiah 4:2; Isaiah 55:5; Isaiah 66:13; Jeremiah 31:31–34; Jeremiah 32:37–42; Jeremiah 33:14; Ezekiel 36:22–31; Ezekiel 37:11 Ezekiel 39:25 f, etc.).

In the New Testament these promises are founded on, and regarded as having their true fulfillment in, Christ and those who are His (2 Corinthians 1:20; Ephesians 3:6). The promise of the Spirit is spoken of by Jesus as "the promise of my Father" (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:4), and this was regarded as fulfilled at Pentecost. The promise of a Saviour of the seed of David is regarded as fulfilled in Christ (Acts 13:23,Acts 13:32, Acts 26:6; Romans 1:2; Romans 4:13; Romans 9:4). Paul argues that the promise to Abraham that he should be "heir of the world," made to him before circumcision, is not confined to Israel, but is open to all who are children of Abraham by faith (Romans 4:13–16; compare Galatians 3:16,Galatians 3:19,Galatians 3:29). In like manner the writer to the Hebrews goes back to the original promises, giving them a spiritual and eternal significance (4:1; 6:17; 11:9, etc.). The New Testament promises include manifold blessings and hopes, among them "life," "eternal life" (1 Timothy 4:8; 1 Timothy 6:19; 2 Timothy 1:1; James 1:12), the "kingdom" (James 2:5), Christ's "coming" (2 Peter 3:9, etc.), "new heavens and a new earth" (2 Peter 3:13), etc. For "promise" and "promised" in the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) has frequently other terms, as "word" (Psalms 105:42), "spake," "spoken" (Deuteronomy 10:9; Joshua 9:21; Joshua 22:4; Joshua 23:5,Joshua 23:15, etc.), "consented" (Luke 22:6), etc. References to the promises occur repeatedly in the Apocrypha (Baruch 2:34; 2 Macc 2:18; The Wisdom of Solomon 12:21; compare 2 Esdras 3:15; 5:29).

W. L. Walker

Proper

prop'-er: For the King James Version "proper" (child), in Hebrews 11:23, the Revised Version (British and American) substitutes "goodly"; in 1 Chronicles 29:3; 1 Corinthians 7:7, the Revised Version (British and American) "own" is employed, and for the too emphatic "their proper tongue" in Acts 1:19 "their language" is written. But none of the King James Version forms are really obsolete.

Proper Names

See NAMES, PROPER.

Property

prop'-er-ti.

See AGRARIAN LAWS; JUBILEE; POOR; PORTION; PRIMOGENITURE; WEALTH.

Prophecy, Gift Of

See SPIRITUAL GIFTS.